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THE 


REAL  CHINAMAN 


BY 

CHESTER  HOLCOMBE 

For  many  years  Interpreter,  Secretary  of  Legation,  and  Acting 
Minister  of  the  United  States  at  Peking 


IVITH  SEVENTY-SEyBN  ILLUSTR^iTIONS 


NEW  YORK 

DODD,  MEAD  &  COMPANY 
1909 


CoPYRiGHT^     iSpi^,    BY 

DODD,  MEAD  &  COMPANY 


All  Rigbti  Reserxed 


Z>3 


THIS  volume  is  bound  in  a  shade  of  color 
known  in  China  as  "Imperial  Yellow." 
It  is  set  apart  for  the  exclusive  use  of  the 
Emperor,  and  severe  penalties  attach  to  its 
use  for  any  jjurpose  by  a  Chinese  subject. 
The  decoration  in  tlie  upper  left  liand  corner  of  tiie  cover 
represents  the  five-clawed  dragon  rising  from  the  sea,  surrounded 
by  clouds,  and  grasping  the  sun.  It  is  thus  the  symbol  of  uni- 
versal dominion,  and  forms  tlie  crest  of  the  Emperor.  The  fig- 
ure used  is  an  exact  reproduction,  reduced  in  size,  of  that  worn 
upon  tlie  breast  and  back  of  all  (Chinese  officials  of  high  civil 
rank  in  uniform  or  court  dress.  In  the  design  and  at  the  top 
is  an  archaic  form  of  the  character  which  means  "  happmess." 
Underneatli  tlie  decoration  is  tlie  Cliinese  title  of  the  book. 
It  was  kindly  written  lor  tiie  autlior  by  His  Excellency,  the 
Chinese  Minister  at  Washington,  wiio,  however,  is  responsible 
for  no  part  of  the  contents  oi  the  volume.  It  is  written  in  a 
peculiar  style  of  penmanship  exclusively  used  for  book  titles. 

Upon   the    back  of  tlie  volume  is  the  autlior's  name,  repro- 
duced from  a  visiting  card,  in  tlie  ordinary  style  of  writing. 


^MfS 


1167153 


PREFACE. 


The  average  of  mankind  resembles  too 
closely  that  pleasant  old  lady  who  lived 
alone,  miles  from  a  neighbor,  in  one  of  the 
more  remote  nooks  of  the  Green  Moun- 
tains. A  stranger  stopped  at  her  gate  one 
summer  day  for  a  glass  of  water.  Upon 
being  told,  in  answer  to  her  question,  that  he  lived 
in  Boston,  she  exclaimed  :  "  Dear  me  !  How  lone- 
some you  must  be  away  off  there  !"  Boston  was  a 
lonely  spot  in  her  conception  ;  but  the  very  centre 
of  the  universe  was  framed  within  the  weather- 
beaten  walls  of  her  cottage. 

Like  her,  we  are  inclined  to  measure  all  people 
by  a  yardstick  of  our  own  construction,  the  model 
for  which  is  found  in  ourselves.  Others  are  right 
or  wrong,  wise  or  unwise,  according  as  they  copy 
or  depart  from  the  fashion  which  we  have  arbitra- 
rily set  up,  the  ideal  formed  within  the  essentially 
narrow  limits  of  our  personal  surroundings. 

We  smile  at  and  perhaps  ridicule  tlie  unthinking, 
automatic  regularity  with  which  millions  of  Chi- 
nese drop  their  winter  garb  for  that  of  summer,  or 
the  reverse,  upon  a  day  fixed  by  the  will  of  one 
man.  Yet  how  does  this  act  differ  in  wisdom  from 
that  other  procedure  under  which  millions  of  the 
most  cultivated  and   refined   ladies  of  America  and 


viii  PREFACE. 

Europe  copy  blindly  monstrosities  in  dress  or  cos- 
tume at  the  freaky  dictation  of  an  impersonality 
called  Fashion  ?  And  if  there  is  a  difference  in  the 
two  rules  of  conduct,  upon  which  side  does  the 
greater  wisdom  lie  ?  Look  at  the  grotesque  out- 
lines and  shapes  of  deformity  which  have  supplant- 
ed the  graceful  contour  of  the  natural  woman,  and 
then  decide  which  is  wiser,  or,  if  you  please,  less 
unwise,  for  a  nation  to  accept  the  dictum  of  one  man 
upon  the  time  when  the  climate  requires  a  change 
of  garb,  or  for  half  the  population  of  two  conti- 
nents, in  defiance  of  their  individual  taste  and  good 
sense,  to  adopt  a  whim  in  dress  which  may  have 
originated  in  the  slums  of  Paris  or  London  ? 

There  is  need  of  more  genuine  knowledge  and 
less  narrow-minded  judgment.  It  would,  doubt- 
less, be  well  if  we  could  see  ourselves  as  others  see 
us.  But  it  would  be  much  better  if  we  could  see 
both  others  and  ourselves  from  a  higher  and  hence 
more  accurate  plane  of  sight,  if  we  could  measure 
men  not  by  oirselves,  but  by  an  ideal,  a  standard 
man.  A  greater  breadth  of  vision  would  serve  a 
more  valuable  purpose  than  to  increase  the  accuracy 
and  intelligence  of  our  conceptions.  It  would  make 
charity  more  common,  patience  easier,  and  belief 
in  the  essential  unity  and  nobility  of  humankind 
the  rule  rather  than,  what  it  now  is,  the  exception. 

It  is  far  easier  to  criticise  the  Chinese  than  to 
understand  tlicm.  Tlie  i)oints  of  contact  are  too 
few  and  too  recent.  Our  information  is  based 
largely  upon  fancy  instead  of  fact,  and  misinter- 
pretation of  them  and  their  ways  is  the  easy  and 
inevitable  result.     Yet  they  are  emj^hatically  a  race 


PREFACE.  IX 

worthy  of  serious  study.  As  real  life  is  far  more 
fascinating  than  any  work  of  fiction,  so  is  the  genu- 
ine Son  of  Ilan,  witli  his  fixed  and  crystallized 
peculiarities,  immensely  more  interesting  to  the 
honest  student  than  the  caricatured  Chinaman,  with 
whom  alone  the  average  public  is  familiar. 

This  volume  is  neither  a  defence,  apology,  criti- 
cism, nor  paneg3'ric.  It  is  rather  an  explanation. 
It  attempts  to  give  ii  few  of  the  results  of  many 
years  of  residence  among  the  Chinese,  in  the  course 
of  which  the  author  was  brought  into  close  and 
familiar  relations  with  all  classes  of  the  people  in 
nearly  every  section  of  the  empire.  In  it  an  effort 
is  made  to  describe  and  explain  some  of  the  more 
prominent  factors  in  tlie  national  life,  and  t(j  show 
why  some  of  their  ways,  so  odd  to  us,  are  natural 
to  them.  Facts  are  dealt  with  rather  than  opin- 
ions. The  book  represents  an  effort  to  outline 
with  a  few  broad  sweeps  of  the  pen  the  Chinaman 
as  he  is. 

The  numerous  incidents  scattered  through  the 
volume  are  inserted  with  a  view  to  make  the  pic- 
ture more  lifelike,  interesting,  and  intelligible. 
Each  one  represents  an  actual  occurrence,  free  of 
coloring  or  exaggeration.  Were  it  necessary,  the 
place  and  date  of  each,  with  the  names  of  the 
persons  concerned  in  it,  could  be  given.  In  the  same 
way,  the  illustrations  are  sun  pictures,  owing  noth- 
ing to  art  save  the  skill  and  fidelity  with  which  they 
have  been  transferred,  unchanged  even  in  minute 
details,  to  these  pages. 

Intertwisted  with  tlie  faults  and  foibles  of  tlie 
Chinese  are  many  sterling  virtues  and   admirable 


X  PREFA  CE. 

traits  of  character.  They  combine  the  fixedness  of 
age  with  the  persistence  of  youth.  They  change 
slowly.  Yet  it  seems  impossible  that  any  one 
should  come  to  know  them  well  without  reaching 
the  conviction  that  there  is  a  great  future  before 
the  nation,  and  that  China  has  yet  an  important 
part  to  play  in  the  history  of  the  world. 

Chester  Holcombe. 
New  York,  January  i,  1895. 


LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS. 


PAGE 

A  High  Chinese  Official  in  Evening  Dress. . .    Frontispiece 

Imperial  Dragon v 

Buddhist  Devil v 

Pagoda  at  Pa  Li  Chuang vii 

Ornamental  Street  Archway  in  Peking x 

Stone  Gateway xi 

Dragons  Supporting  the  Globe xiii 

Ornamental  Fan  Design .  xx 

Dragon  Design i 

A  Gate  of  Peking 13 

Mounted  Chinese  Official 20 

Li  Hung  Chang ^. » 25 

Bronze  Open  Work , 28 

Chinese  Flag 29 

F.nirance  to  the  Palace 32 

View  of  Peking 37 

Chinese  River  Scene 44 

Post  Marking  Land  Boundary 49 

A  Lock  on  the  Grand  Canal 51 

Souvenir  Fan 58 

Toad  Catching  Flies  (from  Chinese  Painting) 66 

Bridge  in  Summer  Palace 72 


xil  LIST   OF  ILLUSTRATIONS. 

PAGE 

Buddhist  Female  Idol , 73 

Group  of  Children , 75 

Street  Scene  in  Peking 81 

Wall  About  Peking 89 

Entrance  Hall  to  Imperial  Tombs 92 

Jinricksha 93 

Carriage  of  Chinese  Official 95 

Front  of  Official  Residence loi 

Chinese  Dragon  (Moulded  in  Porcelain) 11 1 

Sedan  Chai  r 115 

Incense  Urn I16 

Oven  for  Burning  Paper,  Confucian  Temple,  Peking 122 

Buddhist  Priest  Trampling  Satan  Under  Foot 133 

Goddess  of  Mercy 137 

Chinese  Wedding  Chair 143 

Chinese  Head  of  Pillar 144 

Tomb  of  the  Emperor  Yung  Lo,  Died  a.d.  1425 147 

Pagoda  at  Yii  Chuan  Shan 155 

Chinese  Catafalque 163 

Dragons 170 

Head  of  Buddhist  Devotee   171 

Peddling  Fruit 172 

Group  of  Children 175 

Chinese  Barber o .    1 79 

Bit  of  Great  Wall  191 

Flag  Standards ...    1 92 

Entrance  to  Imperial  Cemetery 194 

Approach  to  Ming  Tombs 195 

Bridge  on  the  Grand  Canal 199 

Street  Barrier 213 

Ornament  Pillar 214 

The  Great  Wall 217 

Chinese  Beggar 226 

Mongol  Winter  Encampment  231 

Top  of  Pagoda 237 

Village  on  Grand  Canal  near  Peking 241 

A  Chinese  Student ,,...„   252 

Chinese  Pony  and  Groom 257 


LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS.  XiU 

PAGP. 

Gateway „ .  260 

Bronze  Lion 261 

Chinese  Passenger  Hoat 265 

The  Donkey 275 

Chinese  Mule  Litter 281 

Dragons  Reaching  for  the  Sun 285 

Archway , 286 

Chinese  Jinricksha „    289 

Chinese  Servants 303 

lunk 309 

Dragon , 310 

Group  of  Chinese  Workmen   317 

Mender  of  Tubs 321 

Chinese  Passenger  Cart 325 

Dragon 330 

Antique  Chinese  Cash 337 

Peking-Bank  Notes , 345 

"No  Thoroughfare" 350 


ANALYSIS  OF  CONTENTS. 


CHAPTER  I. 

Introductory 1-28 

Recent  acquaintance  of  China  with  Western  nations,  r. 
Date  of  first  treaty,  2.  Contrast  between  the  Oriental 
and  Occidental  world,  2.  Chinese  seclusion,  3.  Igno- 
rance regarding  foreigners,  4.  The  Chinese  Empire  and 
surrounding  kingdoms,  5.  Position  of  Japan,  6.  The 
so-called  suzerainty  of  China,  S.  Exact  nature  of  rela- 
tionship, 9.  The  opium  war,  10.  Mutual  misunderstanding 
inevitable,  14.  Contrast  between  China  and  Japan.  17. 
Discrimination  against  China  and  its  results,  18.  Students 
at  Annapolis  and  West  Point,  19.  Prince  Kung,  22.  Li 
Hung  Chang,  24.  No  real  opposition  to  the  reigning 
family  among  Chinese,  28. 

CHAPTER  n. 

The  Government  OK  Cn-NA 29-48 

Peculiarities  of  the  governmental  system,  3.1.  Its  antiquity, 
31.  Satisfies  the  people,  32.  It  is  pure  paternalism,  33. 
Filial  obedience  and  parental  responsibility  enforced  by 
law,  34.  The  family  the  unit  of  government,  36.  The 
Emperor,  36.  Laws  are  comparatively  mild  and  humane, 
40.  Rewards  and  penalties,  41.  Two  theories  regarding 
the  system,  42.  Filial  piety.  43.  Influence  of  Confucius, 
45.  Officials  chosen  frt)m  among  the  people,  45.  Similarity 
between  Chinese  form  of  choosing  officers  and  that  followed 
in  the  United  States,  47. 


XVI  ANALYSIS   OF  CONTEXTS. 

CHAPTER  III. 

The  Language 49-72 

Its  antiquity,  49.  Immense  but  uncertain  number  of  charac- 
ters, 50.  Mode  of  writing  and  printing,  51.  Characters 
were  originally  outlines  of  objects  which  they  represented, 
54.  Modes  of  combination  illustrated,  55.  Idiomatic  con- 
structions, 56.  Grammar  of  Chinese,  57.  Chinese  efforts 
to  learn  English,  58.  Words  lacking  in  the  language,  60. 
Difficulties  of  pronunciation,  62.  Sounds  cannot  be  rep- 
resented by  any  alphabet,  63.  Aspirated  and  unaspirated 
consonants,  64.  Tone  has  equal  part  with  sound  in  deter- 
mining the  meaning,  65.  Four  tones  recognized  in  standard 
Chinese,  67.  Amusing  blunders,  69.  Local  dialects,  70. 
Pidgin  English,  71. 

CHAPTER  IV. 
Chinese  Ho^^■:  Like 73-92 

Does  not  begin  with  marriage,  73.  Lot  of  young  married 
women,  74.  Motherhood  a  badge  of  honor,  75.  Polyg- 
amy allowed,  but  monogamy  the  rule,  77.  Influence  of 
women,  78.  Ties  of  locality,  80.  Chinese  not  natural 
colonists,  S3.  Ancestral  worship,  86.  Filial  obedience, 
Sg.     Coffins  presented  to  parents,  90. 

CHAPTER  V. 
Chinese  Social  Like 93-115 

Little  time  given  to  recreation,  93.  An  overworked  Chinese 
statesman,  93.  Peculiar  model  of  Oriental  society,  97. 
Husband  and  wife  may  not  ride  in  the  same  vehicle,  99. 
Chinese  students  in  America,  100.  Social  amusements  of 
Chinese  ladies,  102.  Women  of  the  poorer  classes,  103. 
Oriental  ideas  of  dignity,  104.  Etiquette  interferes  with 
social  life,  105.  Chinese  fond  of  argument,  107.  Legend 
of  the  fox,  108.  Chinese  reception-rooms,  109.  Dinner- 
giving  between  Occidentals  and  Orientals,  iio.  The  ser- 
vant of  the  Corean  minister,  113, 


AA'ALYSIS   OF  CONTEXTS.  xvii 

CHAPTER  VI. 

Chinese  Religions ...     116-143 

Confucius  not  the  founder  of  a  religion,  116.  He  was  a  sage, 
not  a  devotee,  117.  Materialism  is  the  basis  of  Confucian- 
ism, 118.  Temple  of  Heaven,  119.  Respect  for  education 
and  literature,  121.  Worship  of  ancestors,  123.  What  is 
the  practical  idea  involved,  123.  Chinese  belief  in  a  future 
state,  124.  Ancestral  tablet,  125.  All  Chinese  are  Con- 
fucianists,  126.  Taoism,  126.  Its  theory  and  practice, 
127.  Buddhism,  12S.  Method  of  worship,  130.  Thibetan 
archbishop,  I31.  Living  Buddhas,  131.  Ideas  borrowed 
from  Christianity,  132.  Mendicant  priests,  135.  A  pil- 
grimage to  Wu  Tai  Shan,  139.  Chinese  Government  tol- 
erant, 142.     Mohammedans  and  Jews  in  China,  143. 

CHAPTER  VII. 

Chinese  SurEKsmioNs. , 144-170 

Saturated  with  superstitious  notions,  144.  They  are  separate 
from  religious  belief,  145.  Fing  Skui,  145.  Interfered 
with  burial  of  an  emperor,  149.  Chinese  astrologers,  152. 
Methods  of  placating  local  spirits,  154.  The  use  of  pago- 
das, 156.  Lucky  and  unlucky  days,  157.  Prayer  at  the 
hole  of  a  fox,  158.  Prayers  for  rain,  159.  Ling  Shih 
Hsien,  160.  Old  trees,  161.  Inhumanity  as  a  fruit  of  su- 
perstition, 165.  Infanticide,  166.  Treatment  of  young 
children  when  ill,  167.     Two  cases,  16S. 

CHAPTER  VIII. 

Chinese  Queues 171-191 

Peculiarities  of  Oriental  hair,  171.  Admiration  of  the  Occi- 
dental beard,  172.  Symbol  of  Chinese  manhood,  174. 
How  the  queue  was  introduced  into  China,  174.  It  is  a 
badge  of  respectability,  178.  Etiquette  of  the  queue,  178. 
"  Tail-cutting,"  181.  Chinese  belief  in  magic,  182.  Of- 
ficial proclamations  giving  preventives  for  "  tail-cutting," 
183,     One  genuine  case,  184. 


xviu  AJVALYSIS   OF   COXTEXTS. 

CHAPTER  IX. 

Chinese  Courts  ok  Law 192-213 

Primitive  hall  of  justice,  192.  Antiquity  of  the  judicial  sys- 
tem, 193.  The  Censorate,  193.  The  Chinese  Code,  195. 
Cases  are  decided  by  precedents,  197.  Dangerous  latitude 
allowed  to  magistrates,  198.  Efforts  to  secure  confession, 
201.  Antiquated  processes,  202.  Scene  in  a  Chinese 
court,  203.  Chinese  prisons,  205.  Modes  of  punishment, 
206.  Forms  of  death  psnalty,  207.  The  white  silken  cord, 
208.  Etiquette  of  a  Chinese  court,  209.  A  fearful  case  of 
cruelty,  210. 

CHAPTER  X. 

Officials  and  People 214-236 

The  Chinaman  a  philosopher,  214.  Official  salaries,  216. 
Illegal  and  extra-legal  fines,  219.  Guards  against  injustice 
and  extortion,  223.  Civil-service  regulations,  224.  Sale 
of  titles  and  official  honors,  225.  Power  of  public  opinion, 
227.  The  literati,  227.  Dangerous  exercise  of  their 
power,  229.  The  Tientsin  massacre,  230.  Mandarin 
boots,  233.  Interesting  case  of  resistance  to  oppression, 
234- 

CHAPTER  XI. 

Education  AND  Literature... 237-260 

Object  of  study,  237.  Chinese  ambition,  237.  High  moral 
tone  of  educational  works,  238.  Narrow  limits  of  system, 
243.  Description  of  course  of  study,  244.  Schools  and 
their  arrangements,  246.  Method  of  study,  247.  High  in- 
tellectual ability  of  the  Chinese,  248.  The  Chinese  stu- 
dents in  America,  248.  Illiteracy  in  China,  249.  System 
of  government  examinations  originated  1900  years  ago, 
250.  Proscribed  classes,  250.  Degrees  conferred,  253. 
Regulations  for  the  examinations,   254. 


ANALYSIS   OF  CONTENTS. 


CHAPTER  XII. 

Etiquette  and  Cekemonv 261-2S5 

Politeness  universal,  261.  Etiquette  complicated  and  tedious, 
262.  Pompous  and  bombastic  titles,  263.  Foreign  rela- 
tions vexed  by  questions  of  etiquette,  264.  The  audience 
question,  267.  The  etiquette  of  a  cup  of  tea,  269.  Im- 
portance of  familiarity  with  Oriental  forms,  270.  A  Mexi- 
can saddle  and  sombrero  in  China,  271.  Tedious  formali- 
ties evaded,  273.  Lies  of  courtesy,  274.  Chinese  habit  of 
repression,  277.     yuaint  custom  among  Pekingese,  279. 


CHAPTER  Xril. 

Merchants  and  Tricks  ov  Tradk 2S6-309 

Grades  of  Chinese  society,  286.  Standing  of  Chinese  mer- 
chants, 287.  Merchants  study  their  customers,  291.  Va- 
rious prices  for  various  customers,  294.  The  dicker,  295. 
No  standard  of  weight  or  measure,  29S.  Exact  book-keep- 
ing impossible,  300.  Co-operative  system,  301.  The  Chi- 
nese "  squeeze,"  301.     Chinese  servants,  305. 


CHAPTER  XIV. 

The  Poor  in  China 310-329 

Intense  poverty  of  the  Chinese  masses,  310.  Average  prices 
paid  for  labor,  311.  Food  of  common  people,  312.  Ex- 
periences at  Chinese  inns,  313.  Clothing,  316  The 
house,  319  The  labor  problem  in  China,  320.  Economy 
of  the  Chinese,  322.  Government  allows  begging,  323. 
The  queen  of  the  beggars  of  Peking,  327.     Incidents,  328. 


XX  AA^JLVS/S  OF  CONTENTS. 

CHAPTER  XV. 

Chinese  Financial  System 330-350 

The  Chinese  money  unit,  330.  Spanish  and  Mexican  dol- 
lars, 331.  Varying  and  various  ounce  weights,  332.  Form 
of  silver  bullion  used,  334.  Tests  of  fineness,  334.  Chinese 
cash,  336.  Attempts  to  tamper  with  the  currency,  339. 
Doubling  cash,  34r.  Chinese  banks,  343.  Taxation,  346. 
Uncertainty  regarding  total  revenue,  347.  Taxes  payable 
in  kind,  347.  Modes  of  remittance,  348.  Needs  of  reform.. 
349- 


THE   REAL  CHINAMAN 


CHAPTER    I. 

INTRODUCTORY 


The  commencement 
of  any  mutual  acquaint- 
ance between  China 
and  the  Western  world 
dates  back  only  a  little 
more  than  thirty  years. 
The  first  treaties  by  which  China  acknowledged  the 
existence  of  the  nations  of  America  and  Europe  were 
signed  about  fifty  years  ago.  Those  treaties,  how- 
ever, only  served  as  a  preliminary  introduction, 
and  lacked  such  provisions  as  would  enable  either 
of  the  parties  consenting  to  them  to  prosecute  any 
friendly  intimacy  with  the  other.  So  long  as  not 
more  than  three  or  four  points  upon  the  Chinese 
seaboard  were  thrown  open  to  foreign  residence 
and  commerce,  while  travel  in  the  interior  of  the 
empire  was  prohibited,  Peking  remained  inaccessi- 
ble to  all  diplomatic  representatives,  and  our  lega- 
tions were  kept  on  board  men-of-war  cruising  up 
and  down  the  Chinese  coast — so  long  as  such  a 
condition   of   affairs    existed,    we    of    the    Western 


2  77/ A'    REAL    CUIXAMAN. 

World  could  learn  little  about  the  Chinese,  and 
they  could  gain  no  knowledge  of  us. 

Such  was  the  situation  from  the  date  on  which 
the  first  treaty  between  China  and  any  foreign 
power  was  signed — the  British  treaty,  signed  at 
Nanking,  August  29th,  1842 — up  to  the  time  when, 
by  the  treaties  of  Tientsin,  signed  in  1861,  diplo- 
matic representatives  were  accorded  the  right  of 
residence  at  the  capital,  and  foreigners  of  all 
classes  were  permitted  to  travel  freely  throughout 
the  empire. 

Then  first  in  the  history  of  humankind  two 
great  antipodal  worlds  of  men  stood  face  to  face 
and  gazed  into  each  other's  eyes.  The  progressive 
and  aggressive  Occidental,  quick,  eager,  and  alert, 
met  in  the  Oriental  the  very  incarnation  of  con- 
servatism, the  embodiment  of  dignity  and  repose. 
Action  met  inertia.  The  age  of  steam,  steel,  and 
electricity  stood  over  against  the  age  of  Confucius. 
Let  the  reader  imagine  a  modern  pushing  man  of 
business  introduced  to  the  Chinese  sage,  and  the 
two  left  to  become  acquainted,  and  each  to  gather 
his  impressions  of  tlie  other,  tlien  add  to  the  pic- 
ture the  essential  fact  that  the  sage  had  a  positive 
unwillingness  to  meet  the  business  man,  and  he  will 
have  a  sufficiently  accurate  idea  of  the  situation. 

There  was  absolutely  no  common  point  of  meet- 
ing, no  standing  ground  of  a  mutual  advantage 
mutually  recognized.  True,  we  wished  to  trade 
with  the  Chinese.  He  had  shown  how  much  or 
how  little  he  desired  commerce  with  us  by  so  care- 
fully hedging  al)()ut  and  restricting  our  interchanges 
with   him   at  Canton — tlie   single   point  where  they 


JN  TR  OD  UC  7  'OR  1 '.  3 

liad  been  permitted  to  go  on  at  all — that  it  was  as 
though  we  received  his  bales  of  silk  and  chests  of 
tea  lowered  to  us  from  the  battlements  of  an  im- 
pregnable wall,  and  delivered  our  Mexican  dollars 
and  British  opium  to  him  by  the  returning  rope. 
Recognition  of  this  extremely  attenuated  line  of 
commercial  intercourse,  so  far  as  it  existed,  was  in 
the  form  of  restrictive  rather  than  encouraging 
regulations. 

It  was  not  that  China  had  any  peculiar  objection 
to  political  and  trade  relations  with  America  and 
Europe.  She  desired  no  enlargement  of  her  ac- 
c[uaintance  in  any  direction.  An  imperial  decree 
made  any  Chinese  subject  forfeit  his  head  to  the 
executioner,  as  a  punishment  for  having  wandered 
into  foreign  parts,  if  he  was  so  indiscreet  as  to 
come  within  reach  of  that  gentleman  by  a  return 
to  his  native  land.  Tiiat  law  still  stands  unre- 
pealed, though  for  many  years  it  has  never  been 
enforced.  The  government  order,  forbidding  the 
construction  of  any  junks  or  vessels  of  a  greater 
length  than  sixty  feet,  made  all  other  than  short 
coasting  voyages  both  unprofitable  and  dangerous. 
With  her  ports  closed  to  foreign  craft,  regardless 
of  nationality,  and  no  domestic  vessels  fit  for  even 
motlerately  long  ocean  voyages,  it  is  easy  to  esti- 
mate the  extent  of  China's  desire  to  either  receive 
or  return  visits  from  strangers.  The  sole  excep- 
tion to  this  exclusion  was  in  favor  of  a  limited 
number  of  Siamese  merchant-vessels,  duly  regis- 
tered and  furnished  with  permits  to  trade  between 
Bangkok  and  certain  Chinese  ports.  These  made 
their  leisure  way  northward  with   the   summer  or 


4  THE   REAL    CIIIXAMAX.. 

southeastern  monsoon,  and  were  blown  home  again 
by  the  northwestern  winds  of  winter,  thus  making 
one  round  voyage  eacli  year. 

It  is  unnecessary  to  the  purpose  of  this  vokime 
tliat  the  causes  which  led  China  to  prefer  such  ab- 
solute seclusion  should  be  inquired  into  and  their 
validity  either  recognized  or  denied.  That  she 
was  totally  ignorant  of  the  character  and  position 
of  Western  nations,  and  necessarily  so,  is  self  evi- 
dent. It  is  related  that  when  what  is  now  the  Ger- 
man Empire  sent  commissioners  to  China  to  nego- 
tiate a  treaty,  they  were  refused.  On  the  kindly 
interference  of  the  British  minister,  this  refusal  was 
withdrawn,  the  Chinese  Government  naively  re- 
marking that  it  was  informed  by  the  British  repre- 
sentative that  the  Germans  were  really  a  respect- 
able people,  and  that  their  king  was  a  relative  of 
the  Queen  of  Great  Britain.  For  this  reason  they 
decided  to  negotiate  a  treaty.  In  1870  one  of  the 
most  prominent  officials  in  Peking,  being  dis- 
patched to  Europe  upon  a  special  mission,  gave 
directions  that  some  one  hundred  and  fifty  pounds 
of  salt  should  be  packed  with  liis  other  baggage, 
as  he  was  accustomed  to  use  it  in  his  food,  and  he 
had  reason  to  fear  difficulty  in  obtaining  it  in  the 
regions  to  which  he  was  bound.  A  member  of  the 
Imperial  Cabinet  was  once  overheard,  so  recently 
as  1884,  inquiring  of  an  associate  whether  foreign- 
ers had  any  form  of  marriage  contract,  or  whether 
the  two  sexes  lived  promiscuously  together. 

Coupled  with  this  unqualified  ignorance  were 
certain  absurd  and  amusing  notions  concerning  the 
liabits  and  personal  appearance  of  the  unfortunate 


IN  TROD  UC  rOR  V.  $ 

creatures  who  lived  beyond  the  reach  of  the  civiliz- 
ing influences  of  the  Chinese  Empire.  The  inter- 
ested student  in  ethnology  may  find  in  tlie  book- 
stores of  Peking  and  other  Chinese  cities  to-day 
volumes  containing  descriptive  accounts  of  some  of 
these  outside  barbarians,  with  carefully  executed 
representations  of  them  d(}ne  in  water-colors.  One 
type  has  ears  reaching  to  the  earth,  another  has  no 
legs  worthy  of  mention.  The  representation  of 
one  tribe  forces  the  student  to  the  conclusion  that 
the  Chinese  must  have  heard,  and  with  some  ac- 
curacy, of  the  gorilla.  One  race  is  pictured  as 
having  its  face  as  a  sort  of  boss  in  low  relief  upon 
the  breast,  while  another  carries  its  head  con- 
veniently located  under  the  left  arm.  Small  won- 
der that  China  desired  no  close  acquaintance  with 
people  concerning  whom  she  knew  so  little  and 
imagined  so  much. 

Prior  to  this  disturbance  of  her  seclusion,  China 
had,  for  many  centuries,  been  the  single  central 
figure  in  a  world  largely  of  her  own  creation  and  in 
which  she  was  the  final  dominant  force.  She  had 
been  the  jilanct,  the  powerful  civilized,  cultivated 
empire,  surrounded  by  its  circle  of  admiring  satel- 
lite kingdoms.  Corea,  upon  the  northeast,  the 
Mongol  families  on  the  north,  Kashgar  and  Sam- 
arcand  upon  the  west,  Thibet  in  its  Himalayan 
clouds  and  snows  at  the  southwest,  Burmah  and 
Siam  at  the  south,  Annam  and  Cochin  China  trail- 
ing off  from  her  southeastern  border,  and  the  little 
kingdom  of  Liu  Chin  lying  like  a  fringe  in  the 
China  Sea — these  formed  a  system,  a  world,  of 
which   the   Chinese  Empire  was  the  centre.      They 


6  THE   REAL    CHIXAMAX. 

flattered  her  by  that  most  delicate  and  subtle  of 
all  forms  of  flattery,  imitation.  They  copied  her 
forms  of  civilization,  to  a  considerable  extent  mod- 
eled their  governmental  systems  after  hers,  bor- 
rowed her  religions,  several  of  them  adopted  her 
written  language,  gained  their  knowledge  of  the 
arts  and  literature  from  her,  and  all  of  them  de- 
ferred and  appealed  to  her  as  final  authority  and 
sovereign  mistress  of  the  Oriental  world.  She  was 
arbiter  of  their  disputes,  whether  domestic  or  inter- 
national. She  aided  them  at  times  to  quell  insur- 
rection by  force  of  arms.  She  held  herself  and  was 
held  as  the  patron  and  the  superior  of  all. 

In  this  planetary  system — to  pursue  the  figure 
already  used — Japan  was  the  erratic  and  dangerous 
comet.  Probably  no  other  Oriental  nation  gained 
such  large  and  practical  advantages  from  China  as 
did  Japan.  Her  knowledge  of  art,  her  written  lan- 
guage, much  of  her  literature,  at  least  one  of  her 
religious  systems,  were  all  borrowed  from  her  great 
continental  neighbor.  The  very  names  Japan  has 
given  to  her  two  great  staple  products,  tea  and  silk, 
show  that  they  were  introduced  from  China.  Yet 
she  was  always  the  troublesome  neighbor,  the  one 
disturbing  force  in  the  calm  of  China's  recog- 
nized supremacy.  Those  who  imagine  that  recent 
troubles  between  these  two  nations  are  exceptional 
are  mistaken.  They  are  but  a  modern  repetition 
of  the  history  of  the  past  ten  centuries. 

Between  the  nations  named,  excepting  Japan  and 
China,  a  definite  and  well-understood  relationship 
and  intercourse  was  established.  Annual  embas- 
sies came  from  the  smaller  States,  at  each  new  year 


I.V TRODUC TOR  V.  7 

to  Peking,  bringing  presents  and  the  felicitations 
of  the  season  to  the  Itmperor.  They  were  enter- 
tained by  him,  and  on  their  return  home  were  the 
bearers  of  return  gifts  to  tlie  heads  of  their  own 
nations,  whicli  gifts  were  always  cis  much  more  valu- 
able than  tliose  they  brought  as  the  Emperor  was 
greater  in  power  and  wealth  than  their  lord.  It  is 
only  within  a  very  few  years  that  the  King  of  Siam 
has  ceased  sending  white  elephants  to  the  Emperor 
of  China.  Some  of  those  sent  are  still  living  and 
kept  in  the  "  Elephant  Stables"  at  Peking.  And 
the  winter  of  1894-95  bids  fair  to  be  the  first  in 
many  decades,  if  not  centuries,  in  which  the  King 
of  Corea  has  failed  to  dispatcli  liis  annual  mission 
to  the  Chinese  capital.  Much  of  the  traffic  be- 
tween the  two  nations  was  carried  on  by  means  of 
these  embassies,  a  large  number  of  merchants 
being  allowed  to  accompany  them,  and  the  goods 
they  sold  and  bought  being,  as  a  matter  of  priv- 
ilege, exemjit  from  duties  t)r  imposts  of  any  sort. 
Wiienever  the  question  of  succession  to  the  throne 
became  practical  in  any  of  these  outlying  king- 
doms, tlie  will  of  the  l-lmperor  of  China  was  taken 
in  case  of  strife  between  several  claimants.  And 
in  some  of  the  States  niimed  it  had  come  to  be  a 
custom,  thougli  never  more  than  a  matter  of  form, 
for  the  new  incumbent  to  dispatch  a  special  em- 
bassy to  Peking  to  announce  his  accession  and  re- 
quest the  gracious  recognition  of  the  Emperor. 
This  was  peculiarly  true  of  the  kings  of  Corea  and 
An  nam. 

As  might  oe  expected,  much   confusion  and  mis- 
understanding has  grown  up   in   the  exact  and  in- 


8  THE   REAL    CHIXAMAX. 

tensely  practical  Western  mind  regarding  this 
loose-jointed  and  essentially  Oriental  relationship. 
There  is  no  word  in  any  European  tongue  which 
will  describe  the  position  which  China  claims  to 
hold  vis-a-vis  the  smaller  States  named,  because  the 
idea  is  wholly  foreign  to  our  notions  of  interna- 
tional connections.  It  has  therefore,  for  lack, 
partly,  of  a  better  term,  and  partly  of  accurate 
knowledge  of  what  the  relationship  was,  been 
spoken  of  as  a  suzerainty.  Whatever  it  is,  it  is 
not  that.  The  vital  point  of  the  connection  of 
suzerain  and  vassal  is  that  the  latter  must  pay 
regular  sums  of  tribute  and  furnish  specified  mili- 
tary forces  to  the  former.  Neither  of  these  has 
ever  been  exacted  in  a  single  instance.  China  has 
repeatedly  sent  armed  bodies  of  men  to  assist  her 
weaker  neighbors  to  suppress  internal  rebellion, 
but  she  has  never  either  asked  or  received  aid  of 
that  sort  from  them.  And  aside  from  the  inter- 
change of  New  Year  gifts,  in  which  China  invari- 
ably gives  more  than  she  receives,  there  is  no  such 
thing  as  tribute  paid  by  king  to  emperor. 

Vague  and  indefinite  as  is  this  relationship  to 
our  minds,  it  is  simple  and  clear  to  the  Oriental, 
since  it  is  exactly  in  the  line  of  his  ideas.  He  de- 
scribes it  as  the  connection  between  the  elder  and 
the  younger  l^rotlier  ;  and  when  the  Chinese  Gov- 
ernment has  had  occasion  to  mention  her  position 
— toward  Corea,  for  example — the  same  word  has 
been  used  as  is  employed  to  express  the  relative 
position  in  the  family  of  two  brothers.  Keeping 
in  view  tlie  fact  that,  under  tlie  ])atriarclial  system, 
whicli  is  \\(A  only  in  vogue  in  China,  but  forms  the 


IJVTA'0/)CC/OA'V.  9 

basis  of  her  entire  form  of  f^overnment,  the  elder 
brother  has  a  certain  aulhoriiy  over  and  responsi- 
bility for  the  younger,  it  ceases  to  be  difficult  to 
understand  the  tie  which  connects  China  with  her 
surrounding  and  less  powerful  neighbors.  It  im- 
plies a  sort  of  moral  .uithority  or  right  of  control, 
which  is  entirely  foreign  to  our  ideas,  and  particu- 
larly objectionable,  since  it  can  be  exercised  or  re- 
pudiated at  will.  And  perhaps  in  the  fact  that  it 
can  be  enforced  or  evaded,  as  discretion  may  indi- 
cate, is  to  be  found  the  feature  of  the  system  wliich 
is  most  pleasing  to  the  Oriental  mind. 

It  cannot  be  a  matter  of  surprise  to  a  thoughtful 
mind  tliat  long  centuries  of  unquestioned  suprem- 
acy, of  admiriition  and  flattery  from  her  weaker 
and  less  civilized  neighbors,  had  developed  an  in- 
tense national  conceit  in  the  Chinese  mind,  and 
that  she  should  regard  with  feelings  closely  allied 
to  contempt  all  remote  nations  which  had  not  been 
favored  with  her  example,  and  hence  had  not 
formed  themselves  upon  her  model.  She  had  her 
coterie  of  humble  admirers,  and  desired  no  ques- 
tionable additions  to  tlie  circle.  And  it  must  not 
be  forgotten  that  she  had  more  or  less  communica- 
tion with  India,  and  had  a  substantially  correct 
idea  of  what  European  intercourse  had  meant, 
from  an  Oriental  standpoint,  to  that  great  empire 
of  Southern  Asia. 

Such  being  the  attitude  of  China  upon  the  gen- 
eral question  of  establishing  friendly  relations  with 
the  nations  of  Europe  and  America,  and  such  her 
position  of  calm,  yet  absurd,  superiority,  it  was 
peculiarly  unfortunate  that  acquaintance  and  asso- 


lo  THE   REAL    CJIIXAMAX. 

ciation  wilh  us  was  forced  upon  her  ia  what  her 
government  and  people  could  with  justice  regard 
as  a  bad  cause. 

This  is  not  the  place  fur  a  discussion  of  the  ques- 
tion whether  any  nation  has  the  right  to  insist,  by 
force  of  arms,  if  necessary,  that  any  other  nation 
shall  establish  and  maintain  commercial  and  friend- 
ly intercourse  with  it.  That  question  may  be  left 
to  recognized  authorities  on  international  law. 
Nor  is  it  intended  to  express  an  opinion  regarding 
the  right  or  wrong  of  the  so-called  opium  war. 
The  attempt  is  here  made  not  to  record  opinions, 
but  to  portray,  with  some  degree  of  faithfulness 
and  accuracy,  a  situation.  The  broad  outline  of 
facts  is  sufficiently  well  known  to  all  intelligent 
readers,  and  each  of  them  can  and  will  draw  his 
own  conclusions.  But  the  feeling  which  those  facts 
aroused  in  the  Chinese,  the  view  which  they  took 
of  them,  and  which  has  very  seriously  colored  their 
opinions  of  all  foreigners,  and  influenced  the  entire 
course  of  their  foreign  relations,  are  not  sufficiently 
well  understood  nor  its  more  remote  effects  always 
clearly  recognized.  No  true  picture  of  the  mod- 
ern Chinese  can  be  drawn  without  bringing  the 
opium  war  upon  the  canvas.  For  that  reason  alone 
it  is  introduced. 

Whatever  may  have  been  tlie  otiier  causes — and 
they  were  many  and  serious — which  led  to  the  series 
of  military  and  naval  expeditions  against  China, 
from  the  attack  upon  the  Bogue  forts,  below  Can- 
teen, in  1  S42,  to  the  capture  of  one  of  the  nortli  gates 
of  Peking  and  the  destruction  of  the  Summer  Pal- 
ace, in  i860,  to  the  Chinese  the  purpose  of  all  of 


■      IN  TROD  UCTOK  Y.  1 1 

these  operations  is  summed  up  in  one  word  — 
opium.  He  looks  upon  all  other  grievances  as 
pretexts,  or  as  valid  only  through  being  made  to 
subserve  one  main  purpose,  the  opening  of  the  em- 
pire as  a  vast  market  for  the  sale  and  consumption 
of  the  drug  raised  in  India. 

To  him  the  facts  are  plain  and  their  logic  irre- 
sistible. There  had  been  much  friction  between 
the  authorities  at  Canton  and  the  agent  of  the  East 
India  Company  for  years  prior  to  1842  over  the  in- 
troduction of  the  drug  into  China,  either  in  open 
or  secret  violation  of  the  laws  of  the  empire. 
These  troubles  increased  after  the  expiration  of 
the  charter  of  the  East  India  Company.  They 
reached  a  climax  in  1840,  when  Commissioner  Lin 
reached  Canton,  sent  there  by  the  Chinese  Em- 
peror with  the  most  explicit  and  peremptory  orders 
to  put  a  comj)lete  end  to  the  opium  traffic  at  all 
hazards.  He  found,  shortly  after  his  arrival,  opium 
on  board  twenty- two  ships  in  the  river  below  Can- 
ton, to  the  value  of  about  $9,000,000.  It  was  there 
in  open  and  notorious  violation  of  the  laws  of  the 
empire,  and  hence  was,  with  the  vessels  which 
brought  it,  liable,  by  universally  recognized  law,  to 
seizure  and  confiscation.  Its  surrender  was  de- 
manded, and  after  some  peculiar  steps  taken  by 
Commissioner  Lin  to  enforce  the  demand,  it  was 
delivered  to  him  by  Captain  Elliot,  the  agent  of 
the  British  Government,  who  also  gave  a  pledge 
that  no  more  should  be  brought  into  the  port. 
The  opium  thus  secured  (20,291  chests)  was  at 
once  completely  destroyed  by  being  thrown  into 
trenches  and   mixed  with  lime  and  salt  water,  and 


12  THE   KKAL    CIIIXAMAX. 

this  mixture  was  allowed  to  run  into  the  river  at 
low  tide.  Officers  were  stationed  to  prevent  any- 
one from  carrying  away  an}^  portion  of  the  drug  ; 
and  one  Chinese  who  endeavored  to  carry  away  a 
small  quantity  was  summarily  beheaded.  There  is 
not  the  least  reason  to  doubt  that  every  ounce  was 
disposed  of  in  this  thorough  manner.  These  are 
facts  about  which  there  can  be  no  question.  The 
Government  of  China  was  honest  in  its  intention 
to  exterminate  the  opium  trade  ;  it  was  within  its 
right  in  the  demand  for  the  surrender  of  the  con- 
traband drug,  and,  for  once  at  least,  it  possessed  a 
servant  in  Commissioner  Lin  who  inflexibly  and 
thoroughly  executed  the  instructions  which  he  had 
received. 

For  this  legitimate  and  praiseworthy  act,  as  the 
Chinese  reason,  a  British  military  and  naval  force 
was  dispatched  to  China.  Several  important  ports 
upon  the  coast  were  attacked  and  captured  ;  the 
Chusan  Islands  were  occupied  ;  Nanking,  once  the 
capital  of  the  empire,  was  besieged,  and  there 
China  was  forced  at  the  point  of  the  bayonet  to 
enter  into  a  treaty  with  Great  Britain  by  which  she 
agreed  to  pay  $21,000,000.  Of  this,  $6,000,000  was 
for  the  opium  surrendered  and  destroyed,  $3,000,- 
000  was  for  other  claims,  and  $12,000,000  for  the 
cost  of  the  war.  And  the  important  island  of 
Hong  Kong  was  unconditionally  ceded  to  the 
Oueen. 

Such  are  the  facts  which  tlie  Chinese  have  in 
mind,  and  which  give  a  permanent  color  to  their 
opinion  of  foreigners.  It  is  idle  to  explain  other 
and  grave  grievances  which  influenced  the  action 


A    GATE    OF    PEKING. 


I.VTKO/U'CTOh'V.  15 

of  the  British,  and  wliich,  had  opium  never  been 
known,  would  have  demanded  forciljle  interfer- 
ence. They  reply  by  pcnnting  out  the  fact  that 
these  armed  operations  against  their  country  never 
fully  ceased  until  the  practical  occupation  of  Pe- 
king in  i860.  Tlie  flight  of  their  Emperor  and  his 
death  in  exile  had  wrung  from  their  government  a 
further  concession  legalizing  the  opium  traffic  in 
China.  Only  when  that  was  secured,  they  say,  did 
Great  Britain  lay  aside  her  warlike  mien  and  adopt 
a  conciliatory  tone  and  policy.  And  the  efforts 
made  by  the  Chinese  Government — and  they  have 
been  many  and  urgent — to  induce  England  to  con- 
cert measures  with  China  either  for  the  immedi- 
ate or  gradual  suppression  of  the  traffic  are  well 
known  among  the  more  intelligent  of  the  people. 
It  is  also  well  known  that  these  appeals  have  uni- 
formly been  unanswered  or  refused.  This  fact 
lends  intensity  to  their  conviction  and  bitterness  to 
their  dislike. 

These  are  the  more  important  features  of  the 
situation  under  which  China  was  dragged  from  her 
seclusion,  brought  face  to  face  with  the  modern 
Western  world,  and  forced  into  new  and  undesired 
relationships.  That  she  should  resent  what,  from 
her  standpoint,  was  an  unwarranted  intrusion,  is 
but  natural.  That  she  should  misunderstand  and 
misconstrue  the  motives  of  those  who  were  sin- 
cerely desirous  of  serving  her  best  interests  was  to 
be  expected.  Her  rulers  were  in  abst)lute  igno- 
rance of  both  the  principles  and  technicalities  of 
modern  international  law,  and  the  rules  which  gov- 
ern the  intercourse  of  autonomous  and  equal  States. 


1 6  THE  REAL    CH IX AM  AN. 

Through  this  ignorance  they  have  often  put  their 
government  in  false  positions,  and  hence  lost  diplo- 
matic battles  when  the  point  for  which  the}^  were 
striving  was  right  and  they  ought  to  have  won. 
They  are  as  well  aware  of  this  fact  as  any  of  their 
critics,  but  are  too  proud  and  reserved  to  openly 
confess  it.  One  of  the  members  of  the  Chinese 
Cabinet  said  to  the  author  on  one  occasion  :  "It 
makes  no  difference  on  which  side  justice  and  right 
lie,  whatever  the  question  may  be,  China  is  always 
obliged  to  take  the  wall.  Even  when  our  case  is 
good,  we  blunder  and  lose  it."  And  the  pathetic 
remark  contained  far  more  of  truth  than,  perhaps, 
the  speaker  himself  knew. 

Here  is  an  illustration,  a  case  unimportant  in  itself, 
yet  fully  justifying  the  complaint  of  the  Cabinet 
minister.  It  has  been  the  custom  in  Peking  from 
time  immemorial  that,  whenever  the  Emperor  goes 
abroad,  the  streets  through  which  he  passes  must  be 
closed  to  public  travel.  On  one  such  occasion  the 
Chinese  Foreign  Office,  two  days  in  advance  of  the 
event,  notified  the  various  diplomatic  representa- 
tives in  a  courteous  note.  The  streets  to  be  closed 
were  not  in  that  part  of  the  city  where  foreigners 
resided  ;  none  of  them  would  be  in  the  least  in- 
commoded, and,  moreover,  tlie  interruption  to 
traffic  would  last  only  a  couple  of  hours.  Yet, 
with  a  single  exception,  every  legation  in  Peking 
replied,  resenting  the  action  of  the  Chinese  authori- 
ties. In  this  case  the  Chinese  Government  erred 
through  an  excessive  desire  to  be  courteous.  In 
no  capital  of  either  Europe  or  America  would  the 
municii)al   authorities,  much   less  the   Privy  Coun- 


ix'/'A'onrcTOA'Y.  17 

cil  of  State,  trouble  themselves  to  inform  for- 
eign ministers  of  a  temporary  blockade  of  certain 
streets.  They  would  simply  close  the  streets  for  a 
day,  or  a  month  if  need  be,  and  promptly  and 
properly  rebuke  any  question  of  their  action  by 
foreign  representatives. 

When  the  Chinese  people  are  more  fully  under- 
stood, their  faults,  foibles,  and  virtues  recognized 
— they  have  many  of  each — and  the  history  of  this 
first  thirty  years  of  intercourse  between  them  and 
the  outside  world  is  accurately  written,  the  won- 
der will  be,  not  that  China  has  modified  her  an- 
cient ways  so  little  in  this  period,  but  rather  that 
she  has  changed  so  much  and  conformed  so  largely 
and,  on  the  whole,  so  good-naturedly  to  the  demands 
of  modern  life.  Her  people  are  not  stolid,  how- 
ever much  they  may  appear  so.  But  they  are  natu- 
rally cautious,  conservative,  and  intensely  proud. 
The)^  have  been  rudely  awakened  from  a  sleep  of 
centuries — not,  it  must  be  admitted,  under  the  most 
favorable  circumstances.  And  it  takes  time  to 
safely  recast  the  life  and  mode  of  thought  of  four 
hundred  millions  of  people. 

There  is  neither  force  nor  point  in  drawing  com- 
parisons between  them  and  the  Japanese  in  regard 
to  their  progress  in  Western  civilization.  The  two 
races  are  essentially  unlike.  Then  one  more  read- 
il}''  casts  off  borrowed  habiliments  than  those  which 
were  originally  his  own,  earned  by  his  labor,  and 
worn  until  they  have  become  almost  an  integral 
part  of  himself.  As  has  already  been  pointed  out, 
Japan,  in  discarding  Oriental  fashions  foi  Western, 
was,    in    the    main,    merely    casting   off    borrowed 


i8  THE   REAL    CHJXAMAX. 

clothing.  Those  of  China,  on  the  contrary,  are  of 
her  own  devising,  and  have  been  slowly  and  labori- 
ously woven  as  the  shuttle  of  time  passed  to  and 
fro  through  many  centuries. 

Aside  from  tliis,  there  has  been  an  enormous  dif- 
ference, all  in  favor  of  Japan,  in  both  the  initiation 
and  the  conduct  of  their  relations  with  the  West- 
ern world.  Enough  has  been  said  of  the  opium 
war  which  was  the  occasion  of  the  formal  and 
forced  introduction  of  China  into  the  so-called 
"  family  of  nations."  Shortly  after  that  event, 
Japan,  also  at  the  point  of  the  bayonet,  it  is  true, 
received  her  introduction.  The  United  States  per- 
formed that  ceremony,  and  made  the  first  treaty. 
In  both  countries  there  existed  ligid  laws  against 
the  importation  and  use  of  opium.  We  have  seen 
how  those  laws  were  treated  by  those  who  made 
the  first  treaty  with  China.  Our  commissioner  to 
Japan,  on  the  other  hand,  scrupulously  regarded 
Japanese  legislation  and  wishes  upon  this  point, 
and  practically  strengthened  the  determination  of 
the  native  authorities.  To  put  the  contrast  in  the 
mildest  possible  form,  Great  Britain  hampered 
legislation  against  the  use  of  opium  in  China  ;  the 
United  States  rendered  moral  support  to  such 
legislation  in  Japan.  The  difference  between  these 
two  lines  of  action  at  the  outset  is  much  further- 
reaching  in  its  results  tlian  is  ordinarily  supposed. 
It  is  nearly  sufficient  to  account  for  the  different 
positions  of  the  two  nations  to-day.  In  1872,  Japan 
and  Cliina  tiuMi  having  no  treaty  relations,  a  peti- 
tion was  fcjrwarded  by  certain  Cliinese  residents  in 
Japan   to   the   United   States   Legation  at   Peking, 


IN  TROD  UfJ-QK  Y.  19 

with  the  request  that  it  be  laid  before  the  Imperial 
Government.  It  prayed  for  the  redress  of  certain 
serious  grievances  and  hardships  to  which  they 
were  subjected  in  Japan.  The  chief  complaint  was 
that  many  of  them  were  opium-smokers,  and  that 
the  Japanese  authorities  interfered  with  their  prac- 
tice of  the  vice.  They  summed  up  their  sufferings  in 
this  matter  with  the  declaration  that  the  police  were 
even  in  the  habit  of  entering  their  sleeping-rooms 
at  night  and  smelling  their  breath,  in  order  to  dis- 
cover whether  they  had  been  using  the  opium  pipe. 
In  187S  the  Chinese  Government  asked  the  per- 
mission of  the  United  States  to  place  certain  stu- 
dents, then  being  educated  in  this  country  at  its 
expense,  in  our  military  and  naval  schools  at  West 
Point  and  Annapolis.  Although  the  request  was 
not  favorably  received,  it  was  earnestly  pressed  for 
nearly  tliree  years  before  being  abandoned.  Our 
refusal  was  the  main  cause  of  the  withdrawal  of 
what  was  known  as  the  Chinese  Educational  Mis- 
sion, the  most  practical  scheme  ever  undertaken 
by  China  for  placing  herself  in  line  with  modern 
ways  and  ideas.  At  the  time  this  request  was  being 
urged  by  China,  Japanese  students,  sent  and  sup- 
ported by  their  government,  were  learning  the  art 
and  science  of  naval  warfare  at  Annapolis,  as  the 
Chinese  authorities  well  knew.  How  far  this 
favor,  granted  to  Japan  and  refused  to  China,  may 
have  determined  the  issue  of  the  great  naval  battle 
recently  fought  between  the  ships  of  those  nations, 
in  which  several  of  the  principal  Japanese  actors 
were  graduates  of  the  United  States  Naval  Acad- 
emy, cannot,  of  course,  be  determined.     Nor  can 


20 


THE   REAL    CN IX A. VAX. 


it  be  known  how  far  our  refusal  disheartened  and 
prejudiced  a  nation  at  best  only  half-hearted  in  its 
desire  for  progress,  and  timid  and  uncertain  as  tc 
the  best  means  of  promoting  it. 


ClUNKSE    UKKICIAL — MOUNTED. 


The  United  States  and  all  British  colonies  within 
a  reaching  distance  of  Chinese  emigrants,  wliicli 
practically  includes  all  countries  in  which  the 
Chinese  coolie  can  be  certain  of  the  treatment  due 
to  human  beings,  have  passed  laws  against  Chinese 


immigration.  No  such  Icgislalive  action  lias  been 
taken  by  any  against  the  natives  of  Japan.  While 
the  Chinese  Government  is  decidedly  opposed  to 
the  emigration  if  its  people,  it  does  not  regard 
them  as  the  scum  of  the  earth,  and  very  naturally 
objects  to  discriminative  legislation  against  them. 

These  comparisons  and  contrasts  are  not  drawn 
for  the  purpose  of  argument  or  accusation.  The 
(juestion  whether  these  diverse  lines  of  action  tow- 
ard two  neighboring  powers,  brought  out  of  cen- 
tuiies  of  isolation  about  the  same  time,  and  each 
intensely  jealous  of  the  other,  was  wise  or  unwise, 
right  or  wrong,  is  not  raised.  They  are  brought 
forward  solely  as  facts  which  have  had  an  essential 
bearing  \\\\o\\  the  present  attitude  and  position  of 
China,  and  hence  must  be  kept  in  mind  by  any 
person  who  is  desirous  of  obtaining  a  reasonably 
accurate  conception  of  the  people  of  that  great 
empire,  and  the  peculiar  agencies  which  have 
operated,  from  without  as  well  as  from  within,  to 
place  them  where  they  are  to-day. 

During  the  thirty  years  which  have  passed  since 
China  was  opened  to  the  Western  world,  and 
brought,  without  prelude  or  preparation,  face  to 
face  with  the  host  of  delicate  and  confusing  ques- 
tions which  came  with  what  was  really  a  new 
national  existence,  two  men  have  practically  shaped 
the  policy  and  guided  the  destinies  of  the  empire. 
When,  in  i860,  the  allied  British  and  French 
armies  reached  Peking,  Prince  Kung,  a  younger 
brother  of  the  Emperor,  was  the  only  member  of 
the  imperial  famih^  who  remained  at  the  capital. 
He  came  forward   and   made  terms  of  peace  with 


2  2  THE   REAL    CH IX AM  AN. 

the  diplomatic  representatives  who  accompanied 
the  military  forces.  And  from  that  event  until  his 
retirement  from  office  in  1884  he  was  by  far  the  most 
conspicuous  and  influential  figure  in  either  the  for- 
eign or  domestic  politics  of  China.  His  name  is, 
perhaps,  less  familiar  to  foreigners  than  that  of  the 
Viceroy,  Li  Hung  Chang.  This  arises  partly  from 
the  fact  of  his  residence  at  the  capital  instead  of  a 
seaport,  and  because  his  imperial  rank  renders  him 
less  democratic  and  accessible  to  the  ordinary  trav- 
eler. But  for  a  quarter  of  a  century  he  was  the 
head  and  Li  Hung  Chang  the  strong  right  arm  of 
the  Chinese  Empire. 

At  the  very  outset  of  his  public  career  he  suc- 
cessfully initiated  a  system  of  diplomatic  inter- 
course with  Western  powers,  established  a  customs 
system  which  has  no  superior  in  efficiency,  and  at 
the  siime  time  crushed  out  the  Taiping  rebellion  in 
Central  China,  and,  a  little  later,  the  Mohamme- 
dan uprising  in  the  northwestern  provinces.  He 
satisfied  the  just  indignation  of  foreign  govern- 
ments at  the  indescribable  horrors  of  the  Tientsin 
massacre  on  surjM-isingly  easy  terms,  fought  against 
and  then  yielded  the  audience  question  when  his 
shrewd  foresight  showed  him  that  further  opposi- 
tion was  dangerous,  outwitted  Russia  in  the  Kuldja 
affair,  crushed  the  coolie  trafiic  out  of  existence, 
and  finally  came  to  grief  in  connection  with  the 
French  invasion  of  Cochin  China,  though  the  policy 
outlined  by  him  in  that  affair  was  successfully  fol- 
lowed by  Ills  successors. 

Prince  Kung  is  a  past  master  in  the  art  of  Ori- 
ental diplomacy.     He  studies  the  man  pitted  against 


INTKOD  UCTOR  Y.  23 

him  in  any  given  contest  even  more  carefully  than 
the  question  at  issue.  He  is  overbearing  and  con- 
ciliatory, rude  and  courteous,  frank  and  reserved, 
prompt  and  dilatory,  patient  and  hot-tempered — 
all  exactly  as  suits  his  purpose,  and  with  a  startling 
rapidity  of  change  from  one  role  to  another.  The 
great  secret  of  his  success  lies  in  his  ability  to  de- 
termine in  advance  when  it  will  be  necessary  to 
yield.  His  sudden  changes  of  front  are  no  indica- 
tion of  a  vacillating  disposition.  They  are  the 
shifting  of  so  many  masks  behind  which  he  studies 
his  opponent,  estimates  the  amount  of  his  deter- 
mination, and  thereby  decides  his  own  course.  He 
gives  no  premonitory  sign  of  surrender,  is  the 
more  positive  and  unyielding  as  the  final  moment 
approaches,  and  then,  when  his  antagonist  is  brac- 
ing himself  for  a  final  attack,  the  enemy  suddenly 
disappears,  and  a  smiling,  compliant  friend  takes 
his  place. 

As  a  leader  in  what  may  be  termed  a  defensive 
foreign  policy — and  thus  far  China  has  had  only 
that — Prince  Kung  has  probably  no  equal.  No 
man  in  tlie  empire  better  understands  her  future 
possibilities  and  present  inherent  weakness.  No 
man  now  living  there  has  had  any  such  broad  range 
of  experience  and  responsibility  as  he.  During  the 
twenty- four  years  of  his  premiership  there  was  an 
emperor  upon  the  throne  but  two,  and  he  was  an 
effeminate  and  vicious  boy,  who  died  from  the 
effects  of  dissipation.  Practically,  during  his  entire 
term  of  public  service,  Prince  Kung  was  the  master 
mind  in  determining  the  policy  of  the  government, 
and  the  shrewd   and  versatile   politician  and  diplo- 


24  THE   REAL    CIIEYAMAX. 

mat  in  its  execution.  His  recent  recall  to  the  post 
formerly  held  by  him  is  a  distinct  gain  to  the  em- 
pire. 

Li  Hung  Chang  was  born  in  the  province  of  An 
Huei,  in  Central  China,  in  1822.  He  comes  from 
an  ordinary  Chinese  family,  which,  however,  has 
become  noted  from  the  fact  that  all  of  the  sons  in 
the  present  generation  attained  the  highest  rank 
in  public  service,  each  being  entitled  to  wear  the 
pink  coral  button.  Hence  his  mother  is  highly 
honored  among  Chinese  women.  He  became 
prominent  in  connection  with  the  efforts  made  by 
the  Imperial  Government  to  suppress  the  Taiping 
rebellion,  at  which  time  he  was  governor  of  one  of 
the  provinces  which  was  overrun  by  the  insurgents. 
He  ordered  the  immediate  decapitation  of  five 
Wangs,  or  rebel  chiefs,  wlio  had  surrendered  under 
a  pledge  made  them  by  General  Gordon  that  their 
lives  should  be  spared  and  they  should  be  allowed 
to  go  unpunished.  He  was  made  Viceroy  of  Chihli 
in  1871,  and  has  been  retained  in  that  post  continu- 
ously since.  This  is  the  highest  viceroyalty  in  the 
empire,  since  the  capital  is  within  its  limits. 

Li  has  had  a  large  military  experience,  and  in  his 
bearing  and  modes  of  thought  is  more  of  the  sol- 
dier than  tlie  politician.  He  is  exceptionally  large 
for  a  Chinese,  has  a  gruff,  hearty  voice,  and  is  ex- 
ceedingly democratic  in  his  feelings.  Despite  the 
reserve  and  show  of  state  which  is  supposed  to  sur- 
round an  Oriental  of  his  high  station,  he  is  easily 
reached,  and  may  be  seen  by  any  foreigner  who 
can  induce  his  consul  to  request  an  interview. 
Some  of  these  visitors,  and  they  are  many,  might 


LI   HUNG   CHANG. 


IN  TROD  UCTOR  V.  27 

learn  a  lesson  in  ordinary  politeness  from  the  gruff 
old  viceroy.  One  of  them,  an  ex-governor  of  one 
of  our  States,  who  had  been  received  with  extreme 
courtesy,  remarked  to  an  American  friend  as  they 
were  leaving,  the  viceroy  and  his  interpreter, 
through  whom  the  conversation  had  been  conduct- 
ed, being  close  at  his  side,  "  Well,  I  don't  see  that 
the  viceroy  is  such  an  old  heathen  after  all." 

Throughout  his  brilliant  career,  Viceroy  Li  has 
given  consistent  and  conclusive  evidence  of  his 
unswerving  fidelity  to  the  reigning  family.  He  has 
been  the  strong  right  arm  of  the  government.  To 
him  is  mainly  due  the  progress  made  in  building 
up  a  navy  of  modern  ships  and  organizing  an  army 
with  modern  weapons.  The  Imperial  Government 
has  leaned  upon  him  more,  relied  more  upon  his 
counsel,  trusted  him  more  implicitly  than  any  other 
officer,  Chinese  or  Manchu,  outside  of  Peking, 
within  the  limits  of  the  empire.  And  there  never 
has  been  a  time  when  rumors  of  disaffection  on  his 
part  or  distrust  upon  the  part  of  those  above  him 
had  any  foundation  in  fact.  This  is  not  only  true 
of  Li  Hung  Chang,  but  is  equally  true  of  all  Chi- 
nese officials,  so  far,  at  least,  as  any  objection  to 
the  reigning  dynasty  on  account  of  its  being  Man- 
chu is  concerned.  Manchu  rule  has  been  wise, 
moderate,  and  sagacious.  Aside  from  rare  cases 
of  personal  favoritism,  no  discrimination  whatever 
is  allowed  between  Chinese  and  Manchu  subjects. 
The  number  of  Chinese  office-holders  exceeds  enor- 
mously the  Manchu  list.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  the 
native  race  has  absorbed  its  conquerors,  and  the 
two  are  practically  one.     It  is  as  rare  to  find  a  Chi- 


28 


THE  KEAL    ClflXAMAX. 


nese  who  objects  to  the  Emperor  because  he  is  a 
Manchu,  as  it  is  to  find  one  of  our  British  friends 
objecting  to  Her  Majesty  Queen  Victoria  because 
of  her  German  extraction. 


CHAPTER  II. 

THE    GOVERNMENT    OF    CHINA. 

To  misunderstand  every- 
thing Chinese  appears  to  be 
the  rule  in  Western  lands. 
And  in  no  direction  is  this 
misunderstanding  so  pardon- 
able, so  much,  indeed,  to  be  expected,  as  in  questions 
rehiting  to  the  government  of  that  empire.  To  the 
student  of  modern  political  systems,  with  his  ideas 
of  authority  based  more  or  less  completely  upon 
a  popular  vote,  with  its  clean-cut  and  accurate  limi- 
tations and  divisions  of  power,  its  immediate  and 
well-defined  responsibility  to  the  governed,  and  its 
forms  and  methods  carefully  exposed  to  constant 
publicity,  the  system  whicli  has  existed  for  thou- 
sands of  years  in  China  appears  a  hopeless  puzzle. 
To  him  it  is  only  a  confused  snarl  of  undefined  and 
often  conflicting  power.  He  searches  in  vain  for 
the  end  of  the  thread  by  wliich  he  may  striughten 
out  the  tangle,  iind  abandons  the  task,  himself  con- 
fused and  undecided  whether  the  continued  exist- 
ence of  such  a  system,  or  tlie  fact  that  any  people 
could  be  governed  by  it  for  a  single  day,  is  the 
more  remarkable.  He  classifies  it  by  that  familiar 
old  phrase,  an  absolute  despotism,  and,  thus  la- 
belled, he  leaves  it. 


so  THE   REAL    CHIXAMAN, 

Such  a  conclusion,  readied  from  a  standpoint 
exterior  to  China,  is  by  no  means  remarkable.  Her 
people  possess  few  or  none  of  those  peculiar  rights 
and  privileges  which  appear  so  essential  to  others, 
nor  can  it  truthfully  be  said  that  they  long  for 
them.  Trial  by  jury  is  unknown,  and  the  average 
Chinese  defendant  would  shake  his  head  at  the 
idea,  preferring  to  trust  his  case  to  one  man  rather 
than  to  twelve.  Like  the  English  and  Americans, 
his  language  contains  no  phrase  even  remotely 
equivalent  to  habeas  corpus.  Nor  does  he  know 
anything  about  such  high-sounding  phrases  as 
"  the  palladium  of  our  rights"  and  "  the  magna 
charta  of  our  liberties."  He  is  amused  rather  than 
interested  at  our  elections,  and  has  never  had  any 
direct  voice  either  in  the  choice  of  those  who  rule 
over  him  or  in  the  enactment  of  legislation.  The 
laws  of  China  are  simply  the  expression  of  the  will 
of  the  Emperor,  made  in  individual  cases.  And  the 
code — -for  China  has  a  code — is  the  collection  and 
orderly  arrangement  of  these  imperial  decrees  as 
they  have  accumulated  through  many  centuries. 
They  are  collated  from  an  immense  supply  of  prec- 
edents, and  touch  every  imaginable  case  and  all 
shadings  of  circumstance.  The  Chinese  have  an 
invincible  repugnance  to  lawyers.  Their  strongest 
objection  to  all  Western  modes  of  judicial  procedure 
is  the  existence  and  employment  of  lawyers  in  our 
courts.  Said  a  distinguished  Chinese  statesman  to 
the  author  :  "  We  can  trust  our  own  judgment  and 
common  sense  to  get  at  the  merits  of  any  case  and 
do  substantial  justice.  We  do  not  need  to  hire 
men  to  prove  that  right  is  wrong  and  wrong  right." 


TJIK    COl'KRX.UJ'lXT   OF   CHIXA.  31 

The  fact  is,  tliat  while  all  Western  nations  are 
cc^ming  more  and  more  closely  in  their  ideas  of 
government  to  that  declaration  peculiarly  fiimiliar 
to  Americans,  that  "  all  governments  derive  their 
iust  powers  from  tlie  consent  of  the  governed,"  the 
Chinese  have  not  yet  even  considered  such  a  theory. 
Few  of  them  have  heard  of  it.  Their  theory,  on 
the  other  hand,  is  found,  with  tlie  change  of  a  sin- 
gle word,  in  iin  old  book  which  some  of  them  have 
seen,  and  which  declares  that  "  the  powers  that  be 
are  ordained  of  Heaven."  They  have  adhered  to 
this  generic  idea  of  authority  through  all  the  ages, 
under  emperors  good,  bad,  and  indifferent.  Through 
repeated  changes  of  dynasty  and  thousands  of  years 
of  time,  back  to  the  point  where  their  history 
ceases  to  be  fact  and  becomes  fanciful  legend  and 
myth,  they  have  held  unchanged  to  this  idea,  and 
no  essential  modification  can  at  any  period  in  all  the 
centuries  be  discovered  in  their  system  of  govern- 
ment. So  far  as  their  records  show,  it  is  to-day 
what  it  was  in  the  days  of  Yao  and  Shun,  more 
than  four  thousand  years  ago. 

Nor  does  history  record  any  desire  or  effort,  in 
all  these  years,  to  modify  the  Chinese  form  of  gov- 
ernment. It  not  only  has  existed,  it  has  satisfied 
the  people  who  w^ere  ruled  by  it.  It  has  been 
copied  by  smaller  adjacent  peoples,  but  never  re- 
pudiated by  its  own.  It  has  existed  for  a  far 
greater  period  of  time  than  any  other  sj'stem  of 
authority  on  earth  ;  has  ruled  an  immense  multi- 
tude of  people — probably  one  third  of  the  popula- 
tion of  the  globe — and  has  secured  to  them  a  rea- 
sonable measure  of  freedom,  peace,  and  prosper- 


32 


THE   REAL    CHlXAJE-iy. 


ity.  It  apparently  siitisfies  them  as  well  to-day  as 
it  did  centuries  in  the  past.  There  surely  must  be 
something  good,  some  element  which  appeals  to 
the  better  side  of  human  nature,  in  any  form  of 
power  of  which  this  can  be  said. 


ENTRANCE   TO   THE    PALACE. 


Whatever  may  be  the  explanation,  it  is  not  to  be 
found  in  any  lack  or  deficiency  in  the  Chinese  char- 
acter which  would  lead  the  race  to  submit  quietly 
and  without  show  of  resistance  to  an  oppression 
which  other  more  progressive  races  would  over- 
throw. The  Chinese  is  cautious,  slow,  conserva- 
tive. But  he  has  a  sturdy  independence  of  char- 
acter, an  innate  and  strongly  developed  love  of  his 
rights,  and  will  defend  them  as  promptly  and  posi- 
tively as  any  men  elsewhere.      He  may  not  select 


THE    GOVERNMENT  OE  CHINA.  Z2> 

the  same  methods  as  others,  but  he  reaches  the 
same  end  by  his  own  way.  The  Chinese  people 
have  in  numberless  instances  risen  in  opposition  to 
their  local  rulers,  but  it  has  been  an  uprising 
against  abuses  of  the  system  of  government,  never 
against  the  system  itself.  They  have  been  known 
to  deal  with  a  local  magistrate,  such  as  the  mayor 
of  a  city,  in  a  most  democratic  and  unceremonious 
manner  ;  have  gone  so  far  as  to  pull  his  queue  and 
slap  his  face  ;  but  it  was  not  because  of  the  exer- 
cise on  his  part  of  lawful  authority,  but  because  he 
had  exceeded  it.  They  are  much  given  to  attach- 
ing slang  names  to  their  officials,  descriptive  of 
their  peculiarities  of  person  or  administration,  and 
have  even  called  the  Emperor  by  a  phrase  equiva- 
lent to  "  Our  Head  Clerk  ;"   but  this  last  is  rare. 

Theoretically  it  may  be  proper  to  classify  the 
Chinese  system  of  government  as  an  absolute  des- 
potism, but  in  its  practical  operations  such  a  de- 
scription of  it  not  only  fails  to  describe,  but  is  mis- 
leading and  unjust.  It  is  paternalism  pure  and 
simple.  Not  the  man,  but  the  home,  the  family  is 
the  unit  of  Chinese  life.  And  paternalism,  based 
upon  the  ancient  patriarchal  idea  of  the  position 
and  authority  of  the  head  of  the  family,  is  the 
theory  upon  which  the  form  of  government  is 
based.  The  only  despotic  element  in  it  is  to  be 
found  in  the  practically  unlimited  authority  which, 
under  tlie  old  patriarchal  law,  parents  exercised 
over  their  children.  This  law  is  in  full  force  in 
China  to-day,  and  is  perhaps  more  rigoroush'  en- 
forced than  any  other.  The  theory  is  simple,  and 
may  be  stated   in  a  single   line.      The  parent  is  the 


34  THE  A'EAL    CHIXAMAN. 

absolute  master  of  his  son,  entitled  to  his  service 
and  obedience  so  long  as  the  parent  lives.  The 
son  never  becomes  of  age,  in  our  sense  of  the  word, 
during  the  life  of  the  father — that  is,  never  becomes 
independent  of  him.  He  must  serve  him  so  long  as 
he  lives,  at  the  sacrifice  of  his  own  wife  and  chil- 
dren if  necessity  arise  ;  must  honor  him  with  an 
extravagant  funeral  at  death,  mourn  him  for  three 
years,  during  which  period  his  wife  must  not  give 
birth  to  a  child,  and  offer  sacrifice  twice  each  year, 
so  long  as  he  himself  lives,  at  his  father's  tomb. 

The  Chinese  code  provides  that  any  one  who  is 
guilty  of  addressing  abusive  language  to  his  or  her 
father  or  mother,  or  father's  parents,  or  a  wife  who 
rails  at  her  husband's  parents  or  grandparents, 
shall  be  strangled.  Other  penalties  equally^  severe 
are  provided  for  all  possible  offences  against  filial 
duty.  And  no  statutes  in  the  empire  are  more 
rigorously  enforced.  Upon  the  other  hand,  the 
father,  having  been  given  uncontrolled  authority 
over  his  son  throughout  his  life,  is  held  responsible 
by  the  government  for  the  conduct  of  the  son.  If 
the  latter  violates  any  law,  his  parents  and  grand- 
parents, if  living,  are  punished  with  him,  upon  the 
theory  that  they  had  failed  in  their  duty  to  instruct 
him  in  such  a  way  as  to  make  him  a  good  citizen. 
A  most  shocking  illustration  of  this  theory  occurred 
in  Peking  in  1S73.  A  Ciiinese  was  convicted  of 
having  broken  open  tlie  tomb  of  a  prince  and 
robbed  the  coffin  of  some  valuable  ornaments  con- 
tainerl  within  it.  Although  there  was  no  evidence 
to  shc^w  that  any  relative  of  his  was  aware  of  the 
crime,  much  less  a  party  to  it,  yet  the  entire  family 


\ 


THE    GOVERNMENT   OF  CI/ IN' A.  35 

of  thirteen  persons,  representing  five  generations, 
and  including  a  man  more  than  ninety  years  of 
age  and  a  babe  of  less  than  two  months,  were  put 
to  death.  The  criminal  and  liis  parents  were 
sliced  in  pieces  ;  of  the  others,  the  men  were  be- 
headed and  the  women  strangled. 

It  is  necessary  to  keep  carefully  in  mind  this 
patriarchal  idea  of  parental  authority,  since  from  it 
the  entire  system  of  government  in  China  has  de- 
veloped. The  family  is  the  microcosm  which,  en- 
larged but  otherwise  unchanged,  forms  the  type  of 
power  throughout  the  empire.  The  family,  with 
its  autocratic  head,  is  the  unit.  Next  comes  the 
simplest  form  of  combination  in  the  village  life,  in 
which  is  found  a  considerable  degree  of  local  self- 
government,  the  old  men  being  allowed  a  certain 
control,  and  being  in  return  held  responsible  for 
the  good  conduct  and  proper  discipline  of  the 
younger.  Practically  this  semi-official  council  of 
elders  is  allowed  to  regulate  the  less  important 
affairs  of  the  commune  without  interference,  and 
its  opinion  has  great  weight  in  the  adjustment  of 
questions  of  more  gravity.  Its  functions  have  been 
fully  recognized,  not  merely  by  high  officials,  but 
by  every  emperor  who  has  occupied  the  throne. 
Some  two  hundred  years  ago  the  Emperor  Kang 
Hsi,  one  of  the  wisest  in  the  long  list,  prepared  a 
series  of  eighteen  essays  upon  the  varied  duties  of 
his  subjects  in  all  their  relations  to  each  other  and 
the  State,  and  the  elders  in  the  different  villages 
throughout  the  empire  were  commanded  to  call  all 
the  young  men  together  upon  the  ist  and  15th  of 
each  month  and  to  reiid   and  expound   to  them  the 


^6  THE   REAL    CHIXAMAJSf. 

whole  or  a  part  of  one  of  these  essays.  Following 
the  village  group  comes  naturally  the  larger  com- 
binations up  to  the  province,  which  corresponds 
substantially  with  our  State.  And  these,  eighteen 
in  number  in  China  proper,  form  the  empire. 

The  central  figure  in  this  system  is,  of  course, 
the  Emperor.  He  is  the  sire,  the  father  of  all  the 
Sons  of  Han,  as  the  Chinese  are  proud  to  call  them- 
selves. Me  receives  his  authority  direct  from 
Heaven.  He  is  the  source  of  law  and  the  fountain- 
head  of  authority,  the  owner  by  Divine  right  of 
every  foot  of  ]and  and  every  dollar's  worth  of  prop- 
erty in  the  empire.  China  has  no  domestic  debt, 
and  under  this  system  can  have  none,  for  when  the 
Emperor  needs  what  is  his  and  is  still  nominally  in 
the  possession  of  his  subjects,  he  does  not  borrow, 
he  simply  takes  it.  All  the  forces  and  wealth  of 
the  empire  are  his,  and  he  may  claim  the  services 
of  all  male  subjects  between  the  ages  of  sixteen 
and  sixty.  He  has  another,  a  sacerdotal  function, 
which  adds  largely  to  the  reverence  and  semi-sacred 
character  in  wliich  he  is  held  by  the  people,  and  to 
which  is  due  the  seclusion  in  which  he  is  kept.  He 
is  the  son  of  Heaven,  and,  as  such,  Heaven's  high- 
priest.  He  alone  can  worsiiip  and  offer  sacrifice  on 
behalf  of  his  people  at  the  great  altar  of  Heaven. 
In  this  service  he  has  no  recognized  substitute  or 
subordinate.  He  stands  alone  between  his  people 
and  the  Heaven  which  is  to  them  the  final  power, 
Jie  source  of  blessing  and  bane,  tlie  sentient  and 
perfect  judge,  swift  to  reward  virtue  and  punish 
vice.  But  he  stands  there  as  its  son  and  servant, 
thus  forming  the  connecting  link  between  his  chil- 


THE   GOVERXMENT  OF  CHIXA.  39 

dren  and  Heaven,  which  is,  in  their  eyes,  his  ancestor 
and  theirs. 

While  the  imperial  power  thus  described  appears 
to  be  absolutely  without  limit,  it  is,  in  point  of  fact, 
no  more  despotic  or  arbitrary  than  that  with  which 
the  head  of  every  family  in  China  is  clothed.  It  is 
precisely  the  same  in  both  kind  and  degree.  The 
Emperor  is  simply  the  patriarch  of  his  people. 
He  exercises  in  that  great  area  which  forms  the  na- 
tivon,  iind  wliich  they  call  "The  Central  Empire," 
neither  more  nor  less  than  the  same  powers  and 
privileges  which  each  father  of  a  family,  even  the 
meanest  and  most  ignorant,  exercises  in  his  mud- 
walled  and  straw-thatched  hovel.  He  delegates 
his  parental  authority,  of  necessity,  to  officers  of 
various  ranks  and  degrees,  and  each  of  them  be- 
comes by  this  act  the  father  of  those  under  his 
jurisdiction.  The  patriarchal  idea  is  the  vital  cord, 
the  generic  theory  of  the  entire  system  ;  and  in 
that  fact  is  to  be  found  the  explanation  of  its  per- 
manence and  the  power  which  it  has  among  the 
people. 

To  these  officers  is  given  so  large  a  measure  of 
discretionary  power  that,  in  a  considerable  degree, 
each  district  becomes,  like  the  village,  self-govern- 
ing. Practically  officials  are  held  responsible  for 
certain  results.  Ways  and  means  are  left  to  their 
judgment.  They  must  keep  order  and  administer 
justice  within  their  jurisdiction  to  such  an  extent 
at  least  that  no  complaints  are  lodged  against  them 
at  Peking,  and  collect  and  remit  the  amount  of 
taxes  due  to  the  central  government.  The  impe- 
rial  commands   appear   not    to    run   beyond    those 


40  THE  REAL    CHIXAMAX. 

points.  The  results  of  this  freedom  of  action  are 
twofold.  They  give,  as  has  been  stated,  a  consid- 
erable degree  of  liberty  to  local  authorities  to 
consult  the  popular  will,  and  while  they  permit  a 
vicious  official  to  abuse  his  position,  they  make  it 
certain  that  the  popular  censure  for  maladministra- 
tion shall  rest  upon  him  and  not  upon  the  source 
of  his  power.  The  government  is  thus  loose-joint- 
ed in  its  application  rather  than  the  reverse  ;  and 
when  the  people  complain,  which  they  are  not  slow 
to  do  if  occasion  arise,  it  is  not  of  despotic  inter- 
ference with  their  affairs,  but  of  indifference,  not 
of  too  much  government,  but  of  too  little.  He 
who  has  absolute  authority  seldom  exercises  any. 
The  despot  is  a  mere  figure-head,  a  nonentity. 

It  must  also  be  said  that  the  laws,  as  a  whole, 
are  mild  and  humane,  far  superior  to  those  found 
in  any  other  Asiatic  country.  Sir  George  Stan- 
ton, who  translated  the  Chinese  code,  said  of  it  : 
"  When  we  turn  from  the  ravings  of  the  Zend- 
Avesta  or  the  Puranastothe  tone  of  sense  and  busi- 
ness in  this  Chinese  collection,  it  is  like  passing 
from  darkness  to  light,  from  the  dwellings  of  do- 
cage  to  the  exercise  of  an  improved  understanding  ; 
and  redundant  and  minute  as  these  laws  are  in 
many  particulars,  we  scarcely  know  a  European 
code  that  is  at  once  so  copious  and  so  consistent, 
<ir  is  nearly  so  freed  from  intricacy,  bigotry,  and 
liilion. " 

There  are  a  variety  of  other  causes  tending  to 
promote  the  complacency  of  the  people  with  their 
rulers  and  the  form  of  government  under  which 
they  live.      ThiM'c  arc  numerous  checks  and  guards 


77//;    (/('/7-.7v'.\J//;.\/'    OF   CJILVA.  41 

against  abuse  of  power.  The  path  of  appeal  to 
Peking  lies  always  open  ;  and,  theoretically  at 
least,  it  can  be  traveled  without  money  and  with- 
out price.  Although  the  Imperial  Government  sel- 
dom shows  its  hand  in  interference  with  the  local 
authority,  it  has  a  complete  system  of  espionage 
over  all  of  its  subordinates.  One  of  the  depart- 
ments at  the  capital  is  charged  with  the  duty  of 
keeping  a  record  of  the  conduct  of  every  officer  in 
the  empire. 

Aside  from  the  more  serious  rewards  and  pen- 
alties of  promotion  or  dismissal,  a  record  similar 
to  the  credit  and  demerit  system  of  school  days 
is  kept,  and  the  bahmce  tells  for  or  against  the 
career  of  the  given  officer,  as  the  case  may  be. 
Some  of  these  entries  are  whimsical  in  their  nature 
when  viewed  from  a  Western  standpoint,  especially 
as  it  is  common  for  officials,  even  of  the  highest 
rank,  to  report  themselves  for  punishment,  and  be- 
cause of  events  whicla  were  manifestly  beyond  their 
control.  That  celebrated  warrior  and  statesman, 
Li  Hung  Chang,  has  more  than  once  petitioned  the 
Emperor  that  a  punishment  might  be  awarded  him 
because  a  river  within  his  jurisdiction  had  over- 
flowed its  banks,  owing  to  excessive  rain.  Another, 
only  less  distinguished  than  lie,  asked  to  be  re- 
moved from  office  because  a  drought  and  conse- 
quent famine  had  come  upon  the  people  of  the 
province  which  he  governed,  presunial^ly  through 
some  fault  of  his. 

Tlie  central  government  has  also  a  series  of  re- 
wards for  especial  diligence  and  iU)ility  in  public 
service.     A  peacock  feather  to  be  worn  in  the  offi- 


42  THE  REAL    CHIXAMAN. 

cial  hat,  and  possessed  of  no  eye  or  of  one,  two,  or 
three  eyes,  according  to  the  magnitude  of  the  favor 
shown,  is  one  of  these.  Another  is  the  permission 
to  enter  the  outer  gate  of  the  palace  on  horseback. 
Another  is  a  sable  robe.  And  the  last  and  most 
prized  of  all  is  a  short  jacket  of  imperial  yellow, 
the  color  sacred  to  His  Majesty.  These  personal 
marks  of  favor  may  be  given  or  withdrawn  without 
interfering  with  the  actual  position  of  him  who 
gains  or  loses  them.  The  last  two  named  are  be- 
stowed only  upon  officials  of  the  highest  rank. 
Titular  honors  are  also  at  times  bestowed  upon  the 
deceased  ancestors  of  praiseworthy  servants  of  the 
government — a  well-meant  but  useless  reward  to 
them  for  having  given  to  the  service  of  the  Em- 
peror zealous  and  devoted  sons. 

The  two  most  important  factors  in  securing  the 
permanence  of  the  Chinese  governmental  system, 
and  winning  for  it  throughout  the  centuries  the 
continued  and  hearty  support  of  all  classes  of  the 
people,  remain  to  be  noticed. 

The  system  has  been  described  as  pure  paternal- 
ism, based  upon  the  patriarchal  idea  of  authority. 
The  student  of  the  system  may  hold  either  of  two 
opinions.  He  may  regard  the  form  of  government 
as  the  natural  outgrowth  of  the  peculiar  genius  or 
bent  of  the  Chinese  mind,  or  he  may  look  upon  it 
as  arbitrarily  adopted  in  the  early  ages  of  the 
human  race,  and  ascribe  its  perpetuity  to  a  long- 
continued  system  of  education,  wliich  has  so  shaped 
the  popular  mind  as  to  conform  it  to  the  funda- 
mental idea  of  government.  With  either  view  the 
result  is  the   same.     The   Chinese   Empire  stands 


THE    GOl'KRXMF.Xr   OF   CHINA.  43 

solidly  imbedded  in  the  minds  of  the  people.  It 
satisfies  both  their  judgment  and  affections.  Their 
idea  and  range  of  instruction  have  remained  un- 
changed  for  more  than  twenty  centuries,  and  filial 
piety  is  by  far  the  most  essential  duty  taught  in  it. 
That  virtue  is  held  as  the  source  and  root  of  ail 
goodness,  as  the  mainspring  of  morality,  and  the 
fountain-head  of  all  lionor  and  prosperity. 

Filial  piety  may  properly  be  styled  the  only  origi- 
nal religion  of  the  Chinese.  It  is  taught  in  every 
text-book  of  every  school,  and  from  tlie  l)eginning 
to  the  end  of  the  educational  course.  Exceptional 
examples  of  the  practice  of  the  virtue  i:ave  been 
in  all  past  time  and  are  now  brought  to  the  notice 
of  the  Emperor,  and  by  him  rewarded  with  ex- 
ceptional honors.  Every  boy  and  girl  in  the  em- 
pire has,  as  a  part  of  necessary  education,  been 
told  the  stories  of  certain  Chinese  who  practiced 
this  duty  in  a  remarkable  degree.  Their  names 
and  the  manner  in  which  their  devotion  to  their 
parents  was  shown  are  fresh  in  the  minds  of  every 
person  in  the  empire.  There  are  twenty-four  of 
these  renowned  and  special  exhibitions.  The 
"  Sacred  Edicts  of  the  Emperor  Kang  Hsi,"  al- 
ready mentioned,  contains  one  chapter  devoted  to 
exhortation  to  the  practice  of  this  virtue  ;  and 
one  incident  is  given  illustrative  of  the  beneficial 
effects  of  its  exercise  not  included  in  the  twenty- 
four,  and  so  peculiar  as  to  be  well  worthy  of  trans- 
lation. It  runs  as  follows  :  "  There  was  also  in  the 
district  of  Chiang  Cho  a  single  family  named  Ch'en, 
comprising,  in  its  various  generations,  more  than 
seven  hundred  persons,  all  of  ^"hom  ate  at  one  tab'^ 


44 


THE   REAL    CHI. YAM  an: 


Among  them  they  possessed  some  one  hundred 
and  fifteen  or  one  hundred  and  twenty  dogs,  who 
also  ate  their  food  together.  If  any  one  of  the 
dogs  failed  to  come  to  his  food,  none  of  the  others 
would  consent  to  eat."'  "  You  see,"  moralizes  the 
venerable  and  wise   Emperor,  "  this  Ch'en  family, 


CHINESE    RIVER    SCENE. 


by   their  concord   and   liarmonious   lives,  liad   con- 
verted and  regenerated  all  of  their  dogs." 

It  is,  perhaps,  unnecessary  to  inquire  whether 
"  this  Ch'en  family"  possessed  a  peculiar  breed  of 
dogs,  or  whether  the  Emperor  had  been  imposed 
upon.  The  tale  serves  fitly  to  illustrate  the  variety 
of  ways  and  means  by  which  this  duty  of  filial 
obedience  is  impressed  upon  the  minds  of  the  peo- 
ple, until  the  phrase  has  become  with  them  a  syn- 


THE    GOrEA'.YArF.XT   OF   ClffXA.  45 

onym  for  the  sum  of  all  virtue  aud  the  climax  of 
all  religion.  Confucius  found  this  idea  already 
existent,  and  he  so  enforced  and  (Mnbodied  it  in  his 
code  of  political  ethics  as  to  immeasurably  increase 
its  power.  To  him  it  was  alike  the  root  and  cul- 
mination of  all  priv^ate  or  national  virtue  and  wis- 
dom. His  writings  have  shaped  the  minds  of  the 
people  and  the  policy  of  the  empire  for  more  than 
two  thousand  years.  He  is  quoted  alike  by  prince 
and  peasant,  by  emperor  and  beggar.  A  quota- 
tion from  Confucius  has  settled  many  a  quarrel, 
arbitrated  many  a  dispute.  And,  beyond  ques- 
tion, this  long-continued  and  consistent  line  of 
education,  coincident  at  every  point  with  the  root 
idea  of  the  governmental  system,  has  had  an  im- 
mense effect  in  giving  permanence  to  that  system, 
and  in  the  control  of  the  people  under  it. 

The  other  important  element  in  the  conservation 
of  the  system  is  found  in  the  fact  that  the  adminis- 
trators of  the  affairs  of  state  are  chosen  from  among 
the  people  themselves.  The  imperial  family,  aside 
from  its  head,  has  never  absorbed  many  of  the 
offices  nor  concerned  itself  with  the  government. 
There  is  no  titled  nobility,  with  its  long  list  of  elder 
and  younger  sons,  sons-in-law,  and  cousins  near 
and  remote,  to  be  supported  from  the  public  funds 
and  to  fill  all  the  more  important  positions  of  honor 
and  profit.  The  few  titles  that  are  from  time  to 
time  bestowed  carr\'  nothing  with  them  but  the 
nominal  honor  ;  they  are  bestowed  as  rewards  for 
distinguished  services,  and  have  never  been  recog- 
nized as  forming  the  basis  of  any  claim  whatever 
upon  cither  otTices  or   treasury.      In  a  way  they  are 


46  THE   REAL    CinXAMAX. 

hereditary,  but  soon  run  out,  since  the  rank  de- 
creases one  grade  with  each  generation.  Even  the 
imperial  clan  forms  no  exception  to  this  rule.  The 
author  has  many  a  time  had  in  his  employ  a  man 
who,  as  a  blood  relative  of  the  Emperor,  was  en- 
titled to  wear  the  imperial  yellow  girdle  ;  but  he 
was  a  hod- carrier,  and  earned  six  cents  a  day. 

There  is  thus  no  class  or  barrier  of  persons  en- 
titled to  special  privileges  between  the  Emperor 
and  his  people.  Succession  to  the  throne  itself, 
while  it  is  practically  a  matter  of  hereditary  de- 
scent, is  not  necessarily  so.  The  eldest  son  is  not 
the  heir  apparent.  The  Emperor  names  his  suc- 
cessor, and  is  supposed  to  study  the  character  of 
all  his  sons  and  to  select  that  one  who  is,  in  his 
j-udgment,  best  qualified  to  manage  the  affairs  of 
state.  The  eldest  is  frequently  put  aside  ;  and  one 
of  the  best  rulers  of  the  present  dynasty  was  the 
fourteenth  son  of  his  father.  Theoretically  the 
Emperor  may  go  entirely  outside  his  own  family, 
and  select  his  successor  from  among  any  family  of 
his  subjects.  This  course,  however,  is  never  fol- 
lowed. 

Here,  then,  is  seen  at  a  glance  the  Chinese  sys- 
tem. The  Emperor  stands  alone.  He  is  the  son 
of  Heaven,  the  father  of  the  empire,  with  its  count- 
less millions  of  population.  The  innumerable 
"hands  and  eyes  of  the  throne,"  his  officers  of 
every  grade  of  degree,  rank,  and  responsibility  are 
chosen,  under  a  carefully  devised  series  of  regula- 
tions, from  among  the  people  themselves.  The 
door  to  office  is  open  to  all.  Every  boy  in  the  em- 
pire  is  a   possible    iit'inc-minister.      But    each    one 


Tifi'.   r,o\-i-:K.\.\n-:xi'  of  cirrxA.  47 

must  start  at  the  l)()tt()in  of  tlic  official  ladder,  and 
the  height  to  which  he  may  climb  is  then  deter- 
mined solely  l)y  his  own  ability,  zeal,  and  fidelity. 
This  is  not  a  mere  theory,  it  is  a  fact.  The  major- 
ity of  the  hioii  ministers  of  state  in  China  wlio  have 
held  office  during  the  past  centuries,  and  hence 
whose  histories  can  readily  be  traced,  began  life  as 
poor  boys — poor  with  a  poverty  of  which  we  fortu- 
nately know  nothing.  To  name  one  or  two  by  way 
of  example  merely  :  Wen  Hsiang,  one  of  the  great- 
est Chinese  statesmen  of  the  present  dynasty,  and 
for  many  years  prime-minister,  was  the  son  of  a 
farmer,  who  reared  a  large  family  upon  less  than 
ten  acres  of  leased  land.  His  colleague  and  suc- 
cessor, Shen  Kuei  Fen,  was  the  son  of  a  street  ped- 
dler, who  esteemed  himself  fortunate  if  he  made  a 
profit  of  ten  cents  a  day  from  his  business.  Such 
cases  are  not  exceptions  ;   they  form  tlie  rule. 

Leaving  out  of  sight  the  mode  of  selection,  the 
fact  that  officials  in  China  are  not  chosen  by  the 
people,  but  named  by  the  Emperor,  there  is  a  re- 
markable similarity  between  the  system  in  vogue 
in  that  great  Oriental  empire  and  that  followed  by 
the  United  States.  There,  as  here,  it  is  a  govern- 
ment of  the  people  by  officers  chosen  from  among 
the  people,  with  no  bar  to  the  ambition  of  any  of 
the  governed  to  become  a  governor.  And  the  re- 
sult is  much  as  might  be  expected.  Tliere  is  in- 
tense ambition  to  fill  positions  which  are  univer- 
sally recognized  as  belonging  to  the  people,  a 
sturdy  freedom  and  independence  of  opinion  in  the 
criticism  of  the  conduct  of  magistrates,  and  a  gen- 
eral spirit  of  democracy  in  the  popular  mind  which 


48  THE   REAL    C/lEVAAfAA': 

forms  the  most  remarkable  anomaly  to  those  who, 
not  having  the  key  to  the  puzzle,  look  upon  the 
administration  of  Chinese  affairs  as  a  type  of  pure 
despotism.  Perhaps  no  better  proof  of  the  fact 
that  all  classes  of  the  people  fully  understand  the 
theory  and  practice  upon  which  the  government  is 
based  can  be  found  than  the  marked  difference  of 
manner  with  which  they  speak  of  their  officials,  even 
the  highest,  and  of  the  Emperor.  Of  the  former 
they  speak  with  the  utmost  freedom  ;  criticise  their 
public  acts  and  private  life,  dub  them  with  nick- 
names, and  generally  treat  them  as  their  own  fel- 
lows. Of  the  Emperor  they  speak  with  bated 
breath,  and  only  in  the  most  reverential  accents. 

It  is  not  easy  to  overestimate  the  power  which 
such  a  governmental  system  has  to  consolidate  and 
perpetuate  itself  in  the  affections  of  the  governed. 
Laxity  of  administration  or  its  extreme  opposite, 
tyrannous  oppression,  are  alike  condoned,  as  being 
the  fault  of  the  particular  incumbent  of  office  rather 
than  of  the  system.  Every  family  in  the  empire 
has  or  aims  to  have  a  relative,  more  or  less  remote, 
in  some  grade  of  public  service,  and  hence  extor- 
tion, perversion  of  justice,  and  all  the  long  list  of 
possible  wrongs  are  borne  with  a  patience  and 
complacency  wiiich  could  not  endure  for  a  moment 
if  the  official  class  W'ere  not  chosen  ivova  or  did  not 
constitute  a  part  of  the  people  themselves. 

This  mode  of  selection  of  the  administrators  of 
public  affairs,  described  more  in  detail  in  another 
chapter,  has  a  tremendous  power  in  conserving  and 
perpetuating  the  government  of  China. 


CHAPTER   III. 


THE     LANGUAGE. 


It  is  impossible  to  know  any  people 
well  until  the  student  can  speak  and 
think  in  their  tongue.  And  a  barrier  far 
^rjfiffll  more  serious  than  the  Great  Wall  to  any 
^jtfu!  intimate  acquaintance  with  the  Chinese 
is  found  in  their  language.  It  is  the 
oldest  spoken  language  now  existent  upon 
the  earth,  has  been  the  mother  tongue 
of  a  far  larger  number  of  human  beings 
than  any  other  either  in  the  past  or  pres- 
ent, and,  so  far  as  can  be  determined, 
has  undergone  no  serious  changes  either 
in  its  construction  or  written  form  since 
it  came  into  existence.  It  has  had,  in 
common  with  all  other  languages,  a  con- 
stant process  of  growth  and  decay  ;  new 
ideas  have  required  new  symbols  of  expression. 
Characters  have  dropped  out  of  common  use  as  the 
ideas  which  they  represented  were  lost  or  modified. 
But  the  national  habit  of  thrift  and  economy  appears 
to  have  shown  itself  even  in  their  word-building. 
While  new  characters  hiive  been  added  to  the  lan- 
guage, none  of  the  old  ones  have  been  absolutely 
dropped.  The  result  is  an  enormous  list  of  words, 
which  literally  "  no  man  can  number."     The  esti- 


50  THE   REAL    CI/lXAAfAN: 

mate  of  the  total  number  of  distinct  characters  in 
the  Chinese  languao^e  ranges  all  the  way  from 
25,000  to  260,000.  Tlie  Kang  Hsi  Tz  Tien — the 
standard  dictionary  of  China — -contains  44,449. 
Probably  not  more  than  10,000  of  these  are  in  con- 
stant use  even  among  the  educated  classes.  The 
nine  volumes  of  the  Chinese  classics  contain  only 
4601  different  characters,  though  in  five  of  the  nine 
volumes  are  found  a  total  of  over  two  hundred 
thousand  words.  Hence  the  list  of  what  we  would 
call  obsolete  characters  must  be  far  more  extensive 
tlian  that  of  the  active  living  characters  of  the  lan- 
guage. But  pedantry,  as  shown  in  searching  for 
and  making  use  of  some  long-forgotten  character, 
is  a  virtue  among  the  Chinese,  and  one  of  the  favor- 
ite modes  of  exhibiting  great  scholarship  is  by  inter- 
larding a  memorial  to  the  throne,  or  an  essay,  with  a 
host  of  characters  resurrected  from  the  most  an- 
cient debris  of  the  language.  While  this  enormous- 
ly increases  the  labor  of  learning  Chinese — makes 
it,  indeed,  an  endless  task — it  carries  with  it  one 
comfort.  It  is  no  discredit  to  any  person,  however 
learned,  to  l)e  ignorant  of  the  form,  sound,  or 
meaning  of  characters  met  in  his  daily  reading. 

The  Chinese  language  has  no  alphabet.  Each 
character  represents  in  itself  a  complete  idea,  and 
hence  it  is  spoken  of  as  a  monosyllabic  language. 
But,  practically  speaking,  each  character  corre- 
sponds more  nearly  to  our  syllable.  As  ordinarily 
used,  it  is  no  more  nearly  monosylkibic  than  is 
I'lnglish.  It  is  written  in  columns  from  top  to  bot- 
tom of  tlut  i^agi.',  and  from  right  to  left.  A  Chinese 
book    ends    where    ours    begins.      Writing    is    done 


^•••"T-V^-  -'»i 


^ 


A  LOCK  ON  THE  GRAND  CANAL. 


THK    I.AiVGUACE.  53 

with  a  fine  camel's-hair  brush  and  India  ink.  The 
process  of  printing  in  Cliina,  known  centuries  be- 
fore the  discovery  of  the  art  in  luirope,  is  very  sim- 
ple. A  leaf  of  tlie  manuscript,  written  exactly  as  it 
is  to  be  printed,  page  for  page,  is  pasted  upon  a 
block  of  wood.  The  "block-cutter"  chisels  out 
the  entire  surface  of  the  block  to  a  slight  depth 
except  that  covered  by  the  lines  of  the  characters. 
The  surface  thus  prepared  is  brushed  over  with  ink, 
a  sheet  of  paper  is  laid  upon  it  and  pressed  gently 
and  then  removed.  The  book  is  thus  printed,  a 
page  at  a  time.  Volumes  in  the  handwriting  of 
the  author  are  not  unusual.  But  literary  gentle- 
men among  the  Chinese  are  not  exempt  from  the 
habit  of  bad  penmanship  common  to  their  class  in 
other  lands,  and,  as  a  rule,  the  manuscript  is  gen- 
erally, rewritten  i)y  an  expert  scribe. 

The  lack  of  any  alphabet  and  the  enormous  num- 
ber of  characters  make  the  labor  of  learning  to 
read  Chinese  burdensome  in  the  extreme.  Each 
character  must  be  learned  by  itself,  and  when  the 
student  has  mastered  a  thousand  or  five  thousand, 
the  succeeding  thousands  must  be  learned  in  the 
same  way.  Those  already  familiar  furnish  no  other 
assistance  than  a  certain  quickness  to  perceive  the 
peculiar  form  which  serves  to  distinguish  each 
from  its  fellows.  But  there  is  a  peculiar  fascina- 
tion in  tlie  study  of  these  same  characters  when 
once  they  are  known.  The  student  of  any  foreign 
tongue  learns  more  than  how  to  think  and  speak 
in  it.  He  may  learn  much  of  tlie  range  of  ideas 
and  standard  of  judgment  of  the  people  who  use 
it.      Each  word  is  a  photograph,  more  or  less  exact. 


54 


THE   REAL    CIIINAMAX. 


of  the  conception  which  those  who  use  the  word 
have  of  the  idea  which  they  intend  it  to  express. 

This  is  peculiarly  true  of  the  written  language 
of  China.  In  their  original  forms  the  characters 
were  rude  outlines  of  the  objects  they  were  intend- 
ed to  represent.  The  first  change  to  which  they 
were  subjected  was  the  omission  of  unimportant 
lines,  leaving  only  such  parts  of  the  picture  as 
represented  the  peculiar  form  or  essential  points  of 
the  object.  Thus  a  man  was  represented  with  an 
upright  line  for  the  body  and  two  spreading  lines 
for  legs  ;  a  sheep,  by  lines  so  drawn  as  to  represent 
the  horns,  head,  feet,  and  tail  ;  cattle,  by  a  head, 
two  horns,  and  a  tail  ;  the  sun,  by  a  circle  with  a 
dot  in  the  centre  ;  and  a  tree,  by  lines  representing 
the  trunk,  roots,  and  branches.  In  this  way  a  lim- 
ited number  of  forms,  to  indicate  single  visible  ob- 
jects, were  secured. 

Next  came  the  combination  of  these  simple  out- 
lines to  represent  ideas  rather  than  objects.  And 
the  study  of  this  process  of  word-building  is  espe- 
cially fascinating,  since  a  large  proportion  of  the 
compounded  characters  are,  of  necessity,  ideo- 
graphic. Dissect  one  of  them  and  there  lies  be- 
fore you,  in  its  component  parts,  the  Chinese  con- 
ception of  the  elements  which  combine  to  form  the 
idea  which  the  character  represents.  Those  ancient 
Chinese  word-builders  crystallized  into  these  com- 
binations their  own  conceptions,  often  crude,  in- 
adequate, and  even  grotesque,  of  the  ideas  which 
they  sought  to  express.  Here  are  a  few  of  these 
combinations  by  way  of  illustration  :  Two  trees 
represent  a  forest,  three  a  thicket.     The   sun   be- 


TlIK    I.AXCl'AGF..  55 

side  the  moon  represents  brightness.  A  prisoner 
is  literally  a  man  in  a  box.  A  mouth  in  a  door 
signifies  to  ask  ;  a  mouth  and  a  dog,  to  bark  ;  and 
a  woman  watching  at  a  window,  jealousy.  A  pig 
under  a  roof  indicates  the  Chinese  idea  of  home, 
and  a  woman  beside  a  pig  under  a  roof,  the  mar- 
riage of  a  woman  ;  while  the  character  "  to  seize" 
placed  cn'cr  a  woman  shows  the  Celestial  idea  of 
the  part  played  by  a  man  in  a  matrimonial  alliance. 
And  when  a  Chinaman  made  a  woman  placed  be- 
side a  broom  represent  a  wife,  he  painted  thereby 
his  own  conception  of  her  principal  office  in  the 
family.  On  the  other  hand,  he  gave  an  illustration 
of  his  love  for  male  offspring  when  he  made  a 
woman  standing  beside  a  son  signify  good.  He 
indicates  his  modest  conception  of  wealth,  since 
his  combination  consists  of  one  moutla  under  a  roof 
and  over  a  field.  Other  and  perhaps  more  natural 
compounds,  from  our  standpoint,  are  "  white"  and 
"  heart,"  to  signify  fear  ;  a  hand  beside  a  man  mean- 
ing to  help,  and  a  man  standing  by  words  as  a 
symbol  of  faith.  Few  would  fail  to  recognize  the 
aptness  of  thouglit  under  a  tiger  as  a  symbol  for 
worry  or  care,  or  heart  beside  a  pig-sty  as  signify- 
ing mortification  or  disgrace.  But  we  have  a  sorry 
picture  of  Chinese  ideas  of  womankind  in  their 
representation  of  peace  or  rest  by  one  woman 
under  a  roof,  while  two  women  mean  "  to  quar- 
rel," and  three  together  signify  intrigue  of  the 
most  disgraceful  kind.  Generally  speaking,  the 
frequent  use  of  tlie  character  meaning  woman  in 
combinations  in  which  the  idea  to  be  expressed  is 
wrong  in    its   nature   more   than  adequately  illus- 


56  THE   REAL    CHINAMAN: 

trates  the  ancient  Chinese  idea  that  the  female  sex 
is  "  moulded  out  of  faults."  These  Orientals  have 
both  antedated  and  gone  further  than  the  French, 
who,  when  a  man  is  found  guilty  of  offence,  ask  : 
"  Who  is  the  woman  ?"  They  have  woven  the  idea 
into  the  very  fabric  of  their  language.  They  show 
their  relationship  to  Adam  by  pointing,  like  him, 
to  the  woman  as  the  chief  source  of  temptation  and 
sin. 

In  the  construction  of  phrases  and  idiomatic  ex- 
pressions a  similar  peculiarity  exists.  Their  idioms 
are  by  turns  simple,  quaint,  grotesque,  full  of  force, 
and  utterly  devoid  of  any  apparent  connection  with 
the  idea  they  represent.  By  way  of  example,  they 
show  a  peculiarly  low  national  idea  of  the  color 
white  by  its  general  use  to  signify  uselessness  or 
failure.  A  "  white  man"  means  a  useless  good- 
for-nothing,  while  a  "  red  man"  is  a  popular,  suc- 
cessful person.  A  "  white  house"  is  a  hovel  ; 
"  white  talk"  means  unsuccessful  argument,  and 
"  white  running"  means  labor  spent  in  vain.  As 
the  language  in  common  use  is  practically  a  hope- 
less entanglement  of  these  phrases  and  idioms,  from 
most  of  which  time  has  stripped  all  their  original 
force  and  connection,  it  will  readily  be  seen  that 
the  task  of  becoming  familiar  with  an  innumerable 
list  of  characters  is,  after  all,  less  difficult  than  that 
of  building  them  into  sentences  which,  from  a  Chi- 
nese standpoint,  shall  be  intelligible  and  correct. 
More  foreigners  fail  to  speak  idiomatic  Chinese 
than  to  acquire  a  reasonable  knowledge  of  the 
written  characters.  And  the  failure  is  far  more 
serious. 


THE   LAXCUAGE.  5- 

Fortunately  the  grammar  of  the  hmguage  gives 
no  trouble.  It  is  so  simple  as  to  be  almost  non- 
existent. The  words  appear  to  have  been  worn 
smooth  and  round  by  long  use,  and  may  be  used 
for  the  different  parts  of  speech  almost  at  will. 
The  same  word  serves  indifferently  as  a  noun,  verb, 
adverb,  or  adjective,  or  for  any  otiier  subordinate 
purpose  as  may  please  the  speaker.  Moods,  tenses, 
persons,  gender,  and  number  are  all  lacking. 
Conjugations,  declensions,  and  the  whole  tribe  of 
auxiliary  verbs  are  conspicuous  only  by  their  ab- 
sence. A  single  character  furnishes  the  root-idea. 
All  qualifications  of  it  must  be  effected  by  the 
addition  of  other  characters.  The  few  educated 
Chinese  who  have  made  any  attempt  to  master  the 
English  tongue  look  with  horror  and  amazement 
upon  what  they  regard  as  the  clumsy  grammatical 
construction  of  our  language.  And  it  must  be 
confessed  that  while  it  furnishes  many  a  pitfall  to 
the  unwary  speaker  to  whom  it  is  his  mother 
tongue,  it  becomes  a  hopeless  task  to  the  foreigner. 

A  distinguished  Chinese  official,  who  had  once 
made  a  sea  voyage  with  the  author  of  this  volume, 
presented  him  with  a  fan  as  a  pleasant  souvenir  of 
their  companionship  in  travel.  He  was  a  cele- 
brated scholar  among  his  own  people,  an  indefati- 
gable student,  and  while  in  mourning  for  the 
death  of  his  father,  and  consequent  retirement  from 
office,  had,  without  a  teacher,  and  with  no  other 
aids  than  a  Bible,  Webster's  Dictionary,  a  copy 
of  Watts  and  Select  Hymns,  and  some  "  copy- 
books," spent  nearly  three  years  in  the  effort 
to  learn    English.      The    accompanying    reproduc- 


58 


THE   REAL    CHIXAMAN. 


tion  of  a  photograph  of  the  fan  shows  in  part  how 
well  he  had  succeeded.  Every  stroke  seen  in  the 
picture  was  done  by  him  with  an  ordinary  Chinese 


SOUVENIR    FAN. 


brush,  the  English  text  as  well  as  the  native.  The 
latter  is  elegant  both  in  poetic  style  (it  is  a  poem) 
and  in  penmanship  ;  and  the  writing  of  the  English 


THE   LAXGUACE. 


59 


translation  is  marvelous  when  the  implement  used 
is  remembered.  In  "  the  black  ocean"  the  mar- 
quis referretl  to  a  fog  at  sea  wliich  had  mucli 
alarmed  him  ;  the  "  red"  water  was  the  muddy 
current  at  the  river's  mouth  which  marked  the  end 
of  the  voyage.  The  "  captain's  bed"  was  a  sofa 
upon  which  the  donor  of  the  fan  and  the  author 
spent  many  hours  in  conversation.  It  was  in  the 
captain's  cabin,  which  was  occupied  by  the  author 
during  the  voyage.  There  is  a  certain  odd  division 
of  words  and  lameness  of  grammar  in  the  English 
text,  which  is,  however,  an  accurate  reproduction 
of  the  main  idea  of  the  original  Chinese. 

In  another  effort  this  distinguished  scholar  was 
less  fortunate.  He  fell  into  the  bog  of  our  auxil- 
iary verbs,  and  never  came  to  land.  Here  is  his 
English  version  of  a  poem,  written  also  upon  a  fan, 
in  praise  of  the  scholarship  of  an  American  friend. 
The  Chinese  text  was  not  less  elegant  than  that 
shown  above : 

"  To  combine  the  reason  of  heaven,  earth  and  man, 

Only  the  sage's  disciple  who  is  can. 

Universe  to  be  included  in  knowledge  all  men  are  should, 

But  only  the  wise  man  who  is  could. 

I  have  heard  doctor  enough  to  have  compiled  the  branches  of 

science 
And  the  books  of  Chinese  and  foreigners  all  to  be  experience. 
Chosen  the  deeply  learning  to  be  deliberated  are  at  right. 
Take  off  the  jewels  by  side  of  the  dragon  it  as  your  might." 

As  has  been  shown,  Chinese  characters  are,  to  a 
large  extent,  mental  pictures  of  the  ideas  which 
they  are  intended  to  express.  They  hint  at  the 
thought,  but  give  no  clew  to  the  sound  or  pronun- 


6o  THE  REAL    ClIIXAMAX. 

ciation.  There  is  absolutely  nothing  about  a  Chi- 
nese character  that  will  give  the  perplexed  student 
even  a  faint  hint  as  to  how  it  shall  be  uttered  by 
the  voice.  And  this  is  a  generic  point  of  difference 
between  the  written  language  of  China  and  those 
of  America  and  Europe.  There,  characters  paint 
the  idea  ;  the  use  of  it  in  speech  must  be  learned 
separately.  Here  the  word,  or  combination  of  let- 
ters, is  more  of  a  guide  to  correct  pronunciation 
than  to  the  thought  of  which  it  is  supposed  to  be 
the  sign. 

While  the  Chinese  tongue  discloses  various  lines 
of  thought,  delicate  turns  of  speech,  and,  so  to 
speak,  accurate  shades  of  idea  unknown  in  Eng- 
lish, there  are  many  subjects  in  which  the  language 
is  totally  devoid  of  words,  many  ideas  for  which 
there  are  no  forms  of  expression,  simply  because 
those  ideas  have  never  entered  the  Chinese  head. 
In  the  whole  range  of  scientific  language,  for  ex- 
ample, and  the  simpler  terms  and  phrases  used 
in  our  text-books  in  common  schools,  no  equivalent 
expressions  are  found  in  Chinese,  because  the  sci- 
ences and  even  the  simpler  studies  are  unknown  to 
them. 

By  direction  of  the  Secretary  of  State,  the  au- 
thor once  addressed  a  dispatch  to  the  Chinese 
Foreign  Office,  which  is  composed  of  the  entire 
Cabinet,  requesting  that  certain  facilities  be  ex- 
tended to  several  naval  officers  who  were  in- 
structed to  take  observations  in  order  to  determine 
a  magnetic  secondary  meridian  of  longitude.  No 
reply  was  received  to  the  request  for  a  week,  and 
IJien   came  a  note   saying   that  the  Prince  Regent 


THE   LANGUAGE.  6j 

and  the  Cabinet  would  call  the  next  afternoon  to 
inquire  after  the  author's  health.  They  arrived  at 
the  appointed  hour,  and  having  shown  anxious 
solicitude  for  the  physical  welfare  of  their  host, 
who  had  not  been  ill  a  day  during  the  ten  or  more 
years  of  their  acquaintance  with  him,  the  real  ob- 
ject of  their  visit  came  to  light.  They  introduced 
it  by  the  most  profuse  and  extravagant  compli- 
ments for  the  elegant  diction  and  high  literary  style 
of  the  dispatch.  It  was  chaste,  clean  cut,  and 
exact.  No  native  scholars  in  modern  days  could 
write  better  Chinese  ;  but — and  here  they  hesi- 
tated and  commented  upon  their  own  stupidity  and 
ignorance — they  had  not  the  most  remote  idea 
what  it  meant.  They  could  gather  that  the  dis- 
patch made  a  request,  but  beyond  that  point  they 
groped  in  utter  darkness.  An  hour  of  explanation, 
while  it  manifestly  failed  to  give  them  any  clear 
idea  of  the  nature  of  a  secondary  meridian  of  longi- 
tude, showed  them  that  the  request  involved  noth- 
ing dangerous  or  that  would  be  unwise  to  grant. 
They  naively  admitted  that  the  Cabinet  had  been 
for  a  week  divided  regarding  the  contents  of  the 
dispatch  ;  one  faction,  headed  by  the  Secretary  of 
the  Treasury,  insisting  that  it  referred  to  a  quaran- 
tine, since  it  contained  one  character  used  in  con- 
nection with  cholera,  while  the  others  followed 
the  lead  of  the  Prince  Regent,  who  held  that  it  had 
something  to  say  about  a  dynamite  gun.  The  day 
following  this  visit  a  most  courteous  rep'y  was  re- 
ceived granting  the  request. 

But,  after  all,  the  difficulties,  already  described, 
which    confront    any    person    who    would    become 


62  THE   REAL    CIILYAMAX. 

familiar  with  the  Chinese  language  as  a  necessary 
preliminary  to  acquaintance  with  the  Chinese  peo- 
ple, are  not  insurmountable.  Patience,  an  accu- 
rate eye,  and  a  retentive  memory  will  enable  any 
person  to  learn  a  sufficient  number  of  characters 
for  practical  every-day  use.  And  that  is  as  far  as 
it  would  be  necessary  to  go.  Few  foreigners  care 
to  become  finished  scholars  in  this  ancient,  interest- 
ing language.  Even  the  more  perplexing  idioms 
may  be  mastered  if  patience  in  committing  them  to 
memory  and  judgment  in  their  use  do  not  fail. 

The  realh'  serious  difficulties  inherent  in  the  Clii- 
nese  language,  and  which  render  it  an  almost  in- 
surmountable barrier  to  any  thorough  knowledge 
of  the  people,  lie  in  the  use  of  the  language  in  con- 
versation. No  amount  of  book  study  will  enable  a 
person  to  speak  it.  It  must  be  learned  from  the 
lips  of  a  living  teacher.  With  any  amount  of  drill 
it  requires  a  cpiick  ear  and  great  flexibility  of  the 
vocal  organs  to  acquire  accuriite  pronunciation. 
So  serious  is  the  difficulty,  that  it  may  be  accepted 
as  a  rule  that  no  person  over  tliirly  years  of  age 
can  learn  to  speak  Chinese  correctly,  as  the  vocal 
organs,  after  that  period,  appear  to  have  lost  a  por- 
tion of  their  flexibility.  Many  persons  under  that 
age  fail  to  actpiire  a  command  of  the  language 
even  with  the  most  faithful  effort.  Not  one  foreign 
speaker  of  Chinese  in  ten  can  make  the  ordinary 
Chinese  cat  call.  Although  I  accomplished  this 
feat,  I  failed,  after  seventeen  years  of  patient  effort, 
to  produce  a  certain  sound  with  which  the  donkey- 
driver  urges  his  long-eared  beast  al)out  the  streets 
of   Peking.      My   onl}-  C(jnsolation    in    the    failure  is 


THE    LANGUAGE.  63 

that  no  other  forcigiu-r  has  been  known  to  mas- 
ter it. 

There  is  little  use  in  the  attempt  to  reduce  the 
sounds  to  writing.  Leaving  out  of  sight  the  fact 
that  one  broad  peculiarity  which  affects  every 
word  in  the  language,  and  which  is  yet  to  be  de- 
scribed, could  not  be  covered  by  any  system  of  re- 
duction, no  alphabet  or  combination  of  alphabets 
has  been  found  which  will  accurately  represent  the 
sounds.  And,  as  will  readily  be  seen,  to  follow  a 
representation  that  was  only  approximately  cor- 
rect, no  matter  how  close  the  approximation,  would 
cause  the  student  always  to  speak  with  a  brogue. 
As  a  rule,  the  vowel  sounds  are  simple  and  easy. 
The  consonants  are  peculiar,  and  some  of  them 
almost  beyond  the  reach  of  the  vocal  organs  of 
foreigners. 

The  best — tliat  is,  the  most  expert  foreign  au- 
thorities— disagree  as  to  the  best  approximate  rep- 
resentation in  letters  of  any  alphabet  of  many  of 
these  sounds.  It  probably  will  never  be  settled 
whether  the  Chinese  word  for  "  man"  should  be- 
gin with  j  or  r  ;  the  fact  being  that  the  exact 
sound  is  an  intermediate  one,  almost  impossible  to 
any  foreigner,  between  the  two.  The  writer  once 
asked  each  of  several  American  and  European 
scholars  learned  in  the  Chinese  language,  who 
were  guests  at  his  table,  how  the  Chinese  word 
meaning  "  porridge"  should  be  represented  with 
English  letters.  He  received  the  following  re- 
plies:  "67/cw,"  "  i/iow,"  '\-/u'i/,"  '\-/iau,"  '' tc/icaii," 
"  djou,"  and  "  tscciit."  In  like  manner,  the  word 
for    "  fowl"    is    t  rati  si  iterated    by   different   Anglo- 


64  THE  REAL    CHINAMAN. 

Chinese  authorities  in  the  following  manner : 
''Chi,'"  "  ki,"  ''  dji,"  "/M7,"and  "  ^v."  And  all 
of  these  different  modes  of  representation  refer  to 
the  common,  plain  hen. 

The  Chinese,  curious  in  their  language  as  in 
everything  else,  seem  unable  to  catch  the  differ- 
ences between  our  liquid  sounds  represented  by 
/,  w,  //,  and  ;-.  They  confuse  and  misplace  them  in 
their  efforts  to  speak  English.  Yet  each  of  these 
sounds  is  constantly  and  correctly  used  by  them  in 
their  native  tongue.  There  is  a  large  class  of  Chi- 
nese words  having  an  initial  sound  fairly  repre- 
sented by  sh  as  initial,  and  another,  smaller  but 
numerous,  which  must  be  represented  by  those 
letters  reversed,  or  /is,  as  the  initial  sound. 

Again,  all  words  which,  if  spelled  in  English  let- 
ters, would  begin  with  ch,  /,  and  /,  are  subdivided 
into  two  classes.  There  is  an  aspirated  ch,  p,  and  /, 
and  an  iniaspiratcd  ch,  p,  and  /.  If  by  mistake  one 
aspirates  an  initial  /  where  it  ought  not  to  be  as- 
pirated, or  the  reverse,  he,  by  that  error,  changes 
entirely  the  meaning  of  the  word  spoken.  Thus, 
"  tan,"  the  /  being  unaspirated,  means  an  egg,  and 
exactly  the  same  sound  with  an  aspirated  /  means 
charcoal.  The  writer  once  heard  a  venerable  mis- 
sionary address  the  Deity  in  prayer  before  a  crowd- 
ed Chinese  audience  as  "  O  Thou  Omniverous 
God."  He  meant  to  say  "  omniscient,"  but  used 
an  aspirated  ch  when  the  other  would  have  better 
served  his  purpose.  On  another  occasion  a  mis- 
sionary saw  with  astonishment  an  audience  hur- 
ricfliy  leave  his  cluipel  in  response  to  what  he  sup- 
posed was  a  courtcovis  invitation  from  his  lips  to 


77/A   LANGUAGE.  65 

them  to  be  seated.  In  point  of  fact,  however,  lie 
was  not  giving  them  a  welcome,  but  assuring  them 
that  they  had  made  a  mistake  in  entering.  An  as- 
pirated /  caused  all  the  misunderstanding.  While 
it  is  true  that  an  unaspirated  r//,  /,  and  /  represent 
very  closely  the  same  sounds  as  ,;,>■,  /',  and  </,  they 
still  are  not  exactly  the  same.  Any  attempt  to  use 
those  sounds,  while  they  would  doubtless  enable 
the  speaker  to  be  understood,  would  at  the  same 
time  effectually  prevent  him  from  speaking  accu- 
rate Chinese.  And  this  fact  fitly  illustrates  the  ex- 
ceedingly delicate  gradations  of  some  of  the  sounds 
in  the  language. 

Another  broad  peculiarity,  which  affects  every 
word  spoken  in  Chinese,  and  forbids  all  attempt  at 
reduction  to  alphabetical  form,  remains  to  be  no- 
ticed. In  English  and  most  other  tongues  the 
sound  of  what  is  called  a  word  conveys  a  single  and 
invariable  idea  to  the  person  to  whom  it  is  spoken. 
The  tone  in  which  the  word  is  uttered  may  serve 
to  indicate  inquiry,  contempt,  sarcasm,  surprise, 
anger,  or  any  other  emotion  ;  but  the  fundamental, 
the  root  idea,  as  we  may  call  it,  which  is  conveyed 
by  the  sound  remains  always  the  same.  Thus  in 
our  tongue  a  man  is  always  a  man,  whether  the 
word  is  uttered  with  sudden  explosive  force,  as  in 
anger,  with  rising  inflection,  as  in  incjuiry,  or  with 
any  other  variety  of  intonation. 

All  this  is  changed  in  Chinese.  Here  the  tone 
of  utterance  affects,  or  rather  determines,  the  root 
idea  as  much  as  the  sound  itself  does.  The  tone  is 
equal  partner  with  the  sound  in  fixing  the  idea  to 
be  conveved  ;  and   anv  error  in   the  one  is  as  fatal 


G6 


THE    REAL    CJf/.VAMAX. 


to  the  correct  expression  of  any  thought  intended 
to  be  conveyed  by  the  speaker  as  an  error  in  the 
other.  In  Chinese  a  man  ceases  to  be  a  man  the 
instant  you  change  the  tone  of  your  voice  in  utter- 
ing the  word.      He  may  be  a  disease,  a  nightingale, 


^^^^msssm^% 


TOAU    CATCH  I N(;    KUKS. 
(Fro»i   ChiiitSi-  J'uiniin^.) 


or  a  carrot,  l)ut  ]u>  can  l)e  a  man  in  only  one  tone  of 
voice. 

In  the  stanchird  or  nuuuhirin  dialect,  as  it  iscalK'd 
among  foreigners,  there  are  four  of  tliese  tones  or 
inflections  of  the  voice  :  first,  a  high-keyed,  explo- 


Tirr.    r.ANGUAGE.  67 

sivc  tone  ;  second,  £i  rising  tone,  as  in  asking  a 
question  with  us  ;  third,  a  curving  inflection  ;  and 
fourth,  a  falling  inflection.  A  sound  uttered  in 
one  of  these  tones  has  a  meaning  devoid  of  all  re- 
lationship to  or  connection  with  exactly  the  same 
sound  uttered  in  either  one  of  the  other  three. 
Thus,  to  take  the  sound  "  man"  again,  if  uttered 
in  tlic  first  tone,  it  means  l)razen-faced  ;  in  the  sec- 
ond tone,  to  hide  ;  in  the  third,  full  ;  and  in  the 
fourth,  slow.  Another  sound  which  might  be  rep- 
resented by  our  word  "one,"  if  used  in  the  first 
tone,  means  warm  ;  in  the  second,  educated  ;  in 
the  third,  steady  ;  and  in  the  fourth,  to  ask. 

These  illustrations  show  fully  that  there  is  abso- 
lutely no  connection  in  idea  between  the  different 
tones  of  the  same  sound.  They  show  also  that  the 
tone  is  etpial  partner  with  the  sound  in  fixing  tlie 
meaning  of  any  utterance.  Perhaps  no  rule  of 
English  speech  is  responsible  for  so  many  blunders 
in  Chinese  as  that  which  requires  the  rising  inflec- 
tion to  be  given  to  the  final  word  of  a  question 
which  can  be  answ^ered  by  "  yes"  or  "  no."  The 
obedience  to  this  rule  becomes  instinctive  ;  it  pur- 
sues the  unhappy  foreigner  into  his  Chinese,  where, 
instead  of  indicating  a  question,  it  fatally  affects  the 
meaning  of  the  last  word  of  his  sentence,  and  plays 
havoc  generally  with  what  he  would  say.  He  is 
fortunate  if  it  renders  his  remark  nonsensical  rather 
than  insulting. 

With  peculiarities  of  consonant  sounds  unknown 
in  any  Western  tongue,  and  with  a  special  tone  to 
each  idea,  a  mistake  in  which  changes  the  entire 
meaning,  it   is   no   easy   matter   to   speak   a   single 


68  THE  REAL    CI/IXAMAX. 

word  of  Chinese  correctly.  A  long  and  steady  drill 
of  the  vocal  organs  is  necessary  to  the  accurate  and 
ready  pronunciation  of  each  separate  character. 
At  the  outset  of  his  Chinese  studies  the  author  de- 
voted four  hours  each  day  for  eight  weary  months 
to  a  drill  on  the  tone  table — a  table  in  which  each 
sound  in  the  language  is  given  in  the  four  different 
tones — and  for  many  months  afterward  had  occa- 
sional reviews  of  it. 

There  are  as  many  variations  in  these  tones  for 
the  sake  of  rhythm  as  there  are  exceptions  to  some 
rules  of  English  grammar — variations  which  add 
greatly  to  the  labor  of  the  student.  Thus,  for 
example,  if,  in  any  word  of  two  syllables  or  sounds, 
the  second  is  the  emphatic  syllable  and  is  of  the 
fourth  tone,  the  tone  is  changed  to  the  first.  But 
the  presence  of  so  many  varying  inflections  in  Chi- 
nese gives  a  rhythmic  swing  to  the  language  which 
makes  it  pleasant  to  spe^ik  and  exceedingly  grate- 
ful to  the  ear.  With  some  speakers  whose  inflec- 
tions are  clear-cut  and  accurate,  it  sounds  much 
like  chanting.  One  might  expect  this  effect,  since 
it  is  impossible  to  speak  in  a  monotone,  and  the 
voice,  in  any  sentence,  must  pass  through  five 
notes  of  tlie  musical  scale. 

But  the  pleasure  of  Chinese  speech  comes,  if  at 
all,  as  a  well-earned  reward  for  indomitable  perse- 
verance in  mastering  the  most  difficult  language  on 
earth,  and  is  interrupted,  often  in  the  study  and 
not  seldom  afterward,  by  the  most  annoying  and 
absurd  blunders.  A  volume  might  be  filled  with 
them.  A  missionary  once  informed  his  audience 
that  the  Saviour,  when  on  earth,  "  went  about  eat- 


THE  LANGUAGE.  ^<^ 

ing  cake."  He  intended  to  say  "  healing  the 
sick  ;"  but  an  aspirate  wrongly  ])laced  changed 
healing  into  eating,  while  an  error  in  tone  made 
cakes  out  of  those  who  were  ill. 

Upon  one  occasion,  when  the  writer  sat  at  his 
dinner-table  as  the  host  of  a  large  party,  he  called 
the  attention  of  his  Chinese  butler  to  some  little 
item  that  was  lacking  from  the  table,  and  directed 
him  to  supply  it.  The  butler  appeared  puzzled, 
asked  if  the  article  named  was  desired,  and  on 
being  assured  that  it  was,  and  must  be  produced 
at  once  and  without  more  words,  disappeared, 
and  in  a  moment  returned,  bringing  upon  a  tray, 
and  with  that  wonderful  gravity  which  never 
deserts  a  well-trained  Chinese  servant,  the  kitchen 
poker — an  iron  rod  some  three  feet  in  length, 
knobbed  at  one  end  and  sharpened  to  a  point  at 
the  other.  He  probably  believed  that  the  host  was 
about  to  brain  one  of  his  guests  ;  but  that  was 
none  of  his  business,  and  the  poker  was  gravely 
presented  to  his  master,  who  had  simply  placed  an 
aspirate  where  it  did  not  belong. 

Upon  another  occasion  my  cook  was  directed  to 
arrange,  upon  short  notice,  for  a  large  evening  re- 
ception. In  order  to  lighten  his  labors,  he  was  told 
that  he  might  purchase  one  hundred  "  ladies'  fin- 
gers" at  the  confectioner's.  About  two  hours  after 
this  order  was  given  he  entered  the  legation  riding 
upon  the  shaft  of  a  Chinese  cart,  dismounted,  en- 
tered the  office,  and  reported  that  he  had  thor- 
oughly searched  that  section  of  Peking,  but  had 
been  able  to  buy  only  sixty-four  "  ladies'  fingers." 
It  would  be  necessary  to  go  to  a  distance  to  secure 


70  THE   REAL    CHIXAMAX. 

the  remaining  thirty-six.  He  was  told  that  the 
number  bought  would  answer,  and  then  asked  why- 
he  had  hired  a  cart.  "  To  bring  them  home,"  he 
replied.  "  But  could  you  not  bring  them  ?"  was 
the  next  question.  To  this  he  replied  :  "  Of  course 
not  ;  they  weigh  five  or  six  pounds  each."  An 
immediate  inspection  of  that  cart  was  the  sequence 
of  this  startling  statement  regarding  tin)^  strips  of 
cake  to  be  served  with  ice  cream,  with  the  result 
that  the  master  found  himself  the  disgusted  owner 
of  sixty-four  fresh  ox  tongues.  A  wrong  tone  of 
voice  had  done  all  the  mischief. 

The  foregoing  statements  apply  accurately  to  the 
Chinese  language  as  spoken  by  at  least  four  fifths 
of  the  population.  While  in  certain  regions  there 
are  slight  local  peculiarities  of  pronunciation  and 
idiom,  these  are  nowhere  sufficienth'  serious  to  de- 
serve mention  with  a  single  exception.  This  ex- 
ception consists  of  a  strip  of  country  bordering 
upon  the  seaboard,  and  extending  from  a  point 
north  of  Shanghai  to  the  extreme  southern  limit  of 
the  empire.  It  runs  back  inland  in  distances  varying 
from  fifty  to  one  hundred  and  fifty  miles.  Through- 
out this  region,  while  the  written  language  is  the 
same  as  in  other  parts  of  China,  the  spoken  tongue 
is  broken  up  into  a  number  of  local  dialects.  Pro- 
nunciation of  the  characters  differs  so  widely  in 
districts  that  are  contiguous  that  it  is  commonly 
said  among  that  Chinese  that  "  people  living  upon 
one  bank  of  a  river  cannot  understand  £i  word  ut- 
tered by  their  neighbors  upon  the  other."  Since 
Chinese  officials  are  never  allowed  to  hold  posts 
of   duty    in   tlic  ]irovinces    where  they  were  born, 


TlfF.    LAXCl'ACK.  7^ 

those  on  duty  in  these  districts  can  only  communi- 
Ccite  with  tlic  people  whom  they  i^overn  l)y  the 
use  of  interpreters.  Chinese  who  emigriite  to  the 
United  States,  and,  in  fact,  to  other  foreign  parts, 
all  come  from  within  this  area.  Ilence,  with  few 
exceptions,  none  of  tiiem  speak  or  understantl  the 
correct,  standard  Ciunese. 

A  chapter  ujion  the  ianouaoe  of  China  would 
hardly  be  comph-tc  unless  it  at  least  mentioned  a 
nondescript  tongue  that  has  si>rung  up  within  mod- 
ern times  at  the  jioints  where  foreigners  are  by 
treaty  allowed  to  reside  and  pursue  their  varied 
callings.  Few  of  these  learn  the  language,  and 
their  only  medium  of  communication  with  the  na- 
tives in  the  transaction  of  l)usiness  is  through  the 
medium  of  what  is  known  as  "  pidgin  English." 
"  Pidgin"  is  the  net  result  of  the  native  attempt  to 
pronounce  the  word  "  business."  Hence  the  proper 
name  of  the  jargon  would  be  "  business  English." 
With  the  exception  cjf  a  few  mongrel  words  gath- 
ered no  one  knows  how  or  whence,  it  consists  {;f 
the  Chinese  idiom  literally  translated  into  English  ; 
the  pronunciation,  however,  being  varied  to  suit 
the  exigencies  of  the  native  powers  of  speech  and 
understanding.  A  couple  of  incidents  will  show 
how  absurd  and  utterly  undignified  this  mode  of 
communication  is,  and  will  give  all  necessary  ex- 
planation of  its  peculiarities.  The  reader  may  be 
a  trifle  astonished  and  perhaps  incredulous  at  the 
assertion,  which,  however,  is  founded  in  fact,  that 
nine  tenths  of  the  enormous  business  done  between 
foreigners  and  natives  in  China  is  done  by  means 
of  this  grotesque  gibberish. 


72 


THE   kEAL    chinaman: 


A  young  man  who  called  upon  two  young  ladies 
was  gravely  informed  by  the  Chinese  servant  who 
opened  the  door  :  "  That  two  piecey  girlo  no  can 
see.  Number  one  piecey  top  side  makee  washee, 
washee.  Number  two  piecey-  go  outside,  makee 
walkee,  walkee."  By  which  he  meant  to  say  that 
the  elder  of  the  two  was  taking  a  bath  upstairs, 
and  the  3'ounger  had  gone  out. 

When  King  Kalakua,  of  the  Hawaiian  Islands, 
was  in  Shanghai  in  April,  1881,  he  occupied  a  suite 
of  rooms  up  one  flight  of  stairs  at  the  Astor  House. 
Two  American  gentlemen,  desiring  to  pay  their 
respects  to  His  Majesty,  went  to  the  hotel  one 
morning,  and  meeting  the  proprietor  at  the  foot  of 
the  stairs,  made  known  their  errand,  and  inquired 
if  the  king  was  in.  "  I  will  see,"  replied  the  land- 
lord, and  turning  on  his  heel,  he  shouted  to  a 
Chinese  servant  at  the  head  of  the  stairs  :  "  Boy  ! 
That  piecey  king  top  side  hab  got  ?"  "  Hab  got," 
laconically  responded  the  servant.  "  Gentlemen," 
said  the  landlord,  "  His  Majesty  is  in.  Pray  walk 
up." 


CHAPTER    IV. 


CHINESE      HOME      I,  I  F  E  , 


In  one  respect  at  least  China  sets 
an  example  which  all  the  world  may 
wisely  follow.  In  this  empire  every 
one  marries,  and  no  one  "  boards." 
Hence,  generally  speaking,  there 
are  as  many  wedded  couples  as  there 
are  men  and  women  above  the  mar- 
riageable age,  and  as  many  present 
and  prospective  centres  of  home  life 
as  there  are  couples  married.  Bachelors  and  old 
maids  are  conspicuous  only  because  of  their  absence. 
Marriage,  however,  seldom  means  an  immediate, 
new,  and  independent  home  centre.  It  does  not 
emancipate  the  man  from  his  duty  to  his  parents, 
nor  lessen  in  any  degree  the  obedience  and  support 
he  is  bound  to  render  them.  He  never  becomes  of 
age  and  gains  his  independence  so  long  as  they 
live.  A  newly  married  pair  invarial)ly  take  up 
their  residence  with  the  parents  of  the  groom.  In 
fact,  the  essential  part  of  the  ceremony  is  the  con- 
veyance of  the  bride  in  a  red  sedan  chair  to  the 
residence  of  the  groom's  parents,  and  the  delivery 
of  her  to  him  there.  By  this  act  she  loses  all  con- 
nection with  her  own  home,  her  own  family,  and 
becomes  an  integral  part  of  that  of  her  husband. 


74  THE   REAL    CHIXAMAX. 

And  in  it  she  does  not  appear  to  be  primarily  the 
wife  of  her  husband  so  much  as  the  servant,  the 
drudge,  of  her  mother-in-law. 

The  lot  of  the  young  married  woman  in  China  is 
hard  and  unenviable  in  the  extreme.  She  has  no 
voice  in  the  selection  of  the  man  to  whom  she  is  to 
be  joined,  but,  theoretically  at  least,  marries  one 
whom  she  has  never  seen  and  to  whom  she  has 
never  spoken.  Upon  the  day  appointed  for  the 
ceremony  she  is  carried  and  delivered  to  him  liter- 
ally like  "  a  cat  in  a  bag,"  for  her  head  and  body 
to  the  waist  are  thus  enveloped.  He,  upon  his 
part,  has  never  seen  her,  had  no  share  in  making 
the  selection,  and  has  not  the  least  reason  to  be 
other  than  wholly  indifferent  to  her.  Hence,  while 
mutual  affection  may  come  after  marriage,  it  never 
precedes  it,  and  has  no  share  in  the  bond  which 
binds  the  two  together.  In  her  new  home  she 
simply  becomes  a  convenient  under-servant.  The 
most  menial  tasks,  the  heaviest  burdens  are  laid 
upon  her.  Her  only  justification  for  continuing  to 
live  is  found  in  child-bearing.  Prior  to  that  event 
she  is  not  ordinarily  given  the  title  of  a  marrie<i 
woman,  l)ut  is  still  spoken  of  or  addressed  as  a 
girl.  In  China,  not  marriage,  but  motherhood, 
changes  a  woman's  title  from  Miss  to  Mrs.  When 
she  becomes  a  mother,  and  especially  if  she  bears 
a  son,  tlien  at  last  she  is  entitled  to  a  certain  amount 
of  respect  and  recognition  as  something  higher 
than  a  beast  of  burden.  But  bef(.)re  this  event 
occurs  young  wives  not  infrequently  commit,  or 
attempt,  suicide  as  the  only  escape  from  the  intol- 
erable cnicltics  of  tlu>  motlicr-in-law. 


CJIIXI'.SK   JIOMI-:   J.IJ-K. 


75 


In  motherhood  alone  does  the  Chinese  woman 
find  protection  and  honor.  Yet  even  here  her  posi- 
tion, viewed  from  a  Western  standpoint,  is  pecul- 
iar and  jierhaps  grotes({iie.     She  may  be  an  auto- 


GROUP    OF    CHILDREN. 


CI  at  with  her  children.  She  may  claim  absolute 
obedience  from  them,  even  when  they  are  gray- 
headed  and  perhaps  themselves  fathers  of  families. 
She  may  become,  in  turn,  the  terror  of  several 
daughters-in-law,  and  wreak  upon  them  the  heavy 
load  of  misery  she  endured  as  a  young  wife.      But 


76  THE   REAL    CHIXAMAX. 

she  is  never  anything  but  a  servant  to  her  liusband. 
In  the  event  of  her  death  her  sons  must,  by  Chinese 
law,  wear  mourning  and  go  about  with  unshaven 
heads  for  a  period  of  one  hundred  days.  But  her 
husband  would  render  himself  an  object  of  ridicule 
and  contempt  among  his  friends  if  he  put  on 
mourning  or  expressed  grief  at  her  loss.  He  may 
marry  again  as  often  as  he  sees  fit,  but  it  is  not 
considered  respectable  for  a  widow  to  take  a  sec- 
ond husband.  The  Chinese,  with  their  usual  dis- 
like for  plain  speech  upon  any  disagreeable  sub- 
ject, never  say,  "  Widow  Wang  has  married 
again,"  but  "  she  has  taken  a  step  in  advance." 
If  a  young  Chinese  widow  desires  the  praise  and 
honor  of  all  her  nation,  and  perhaps  a  monu- 
mental arch  erected  by  command  of  the  Emperor 
to  celebrate  her  virtues,  she  will  put  an  end  to  her 
own  existence  upon  her  husimnd's  coffin.  If  she  is 
ambitious  in  a  more  moderate  degree,  she  will  de- 
vote the  entire  remainder  of  her  life  to  attendance 
upon  the  parents  of  the  man  whose  name  she  bears. 

In  conversation  with  some  high  officials  of  the 
government  of  China,  I  once  referred  to  the  recent 
death  of  the  wife  of  the  Prince  Regent,  and  re- 
marked that  of  course  the  prince  would  go  into 
retirement  and  lay  aside  his  duties  for  a  time. 

"  Oh,  no,"  replied  one  of  the  Cabinet  with  a 
laugh  ;  "  the  death  of  a  wife  counts  iov  nothing 
with  us.  Why  should  the  prince  go  into  mourning 
for  her  ?     He  can  get  as  many  more  as  he  wishes." 

In  point  of  fact,  he  already  had  several  others 
on  hand.  In  China  a  man  is  legally  and  morally 
allowed  to  marry  as  many  wives  as  he  can  support. 


c/ii.v/':s/-:  /ro.u/-:  tjfe.  77 

The  first,  or  proper  wife,  appears  to  have  a  certain 
amount  of  precedence  over  the  others.  They  are 
all  servants,  aniDno^  whom  she  is  the  head.  The 
children  by  all  are  ecpially  legitimate,  and  have 
equal  rie^hts  of  inheritance.  That  this  rule  is  liter- 
ally carried  out  is  shown  by  the  fact  that  the  Em- 
peror, who  seldom  marries  less  than  four  "  head 
wives,"  and  has  any  where  froni  seventy-five  to  a 
hundred  "assistant  wives,"  as  they  are  called,  or 
concubines,  as  we  should  call  them,  is  supposed  to 
study  the  characters  of  all  his  sons  by  all  these 
head  and  assistant  wives,  and  to  select  from  the 
entire  number  that  one  best  qualified  to  succeed 
him  upon  his  imperial  throne.  His  selection,  as 
miglit  be  expected,  not  infrequently  falls  upon  the 
son  of  some  favorite  concubine,  who  thus  becomes 
his  successor.  Chien  Lung,  one  of  the  ablest  rulers 
of  China  in  many  hundred  years,  was  the  four- 
teenth son  of  his  father.  And  Tung  Chih,  who 
died  in  1S75,  and  of  whom  so  much  cannot  be  said, 
was  the  son  of  a  subordinate  wife. 

Yet  among  the  middle  and  poorer  classes  one 
wife  is  practically  the  universal  rule,  to  which  ex- 
ceptions are  very  rare.  Some  of  my  readers  may 
be  inclined  to  discover  a  relationship  between  the 
fact  that,  while  any  number  of  wives  is  permissible, 
more  than  one  is  seldom  taken,  and  that  other  fact, 
already  mentioned,  that  ii;  the  written  language 
of  the  empire  one  woman  under  a  roof  means 
"peace,"  two  women  under  a  roof  mean  "dis- 
cord," and  three,  intrigue  in  its  worst  form.  It 
would  not  Ix;  at  all  surprising  if  some  relationship 
did   exist    between    these    widely    separated    facts. 


78  THE   REAL    CHIXAMAX. 

The  Chinese  is  botn  practical  and  of  a  philosophi- 
cal turn  of  mind.  It  would  not  be  strange  if  he 
had  seen  fit,  in  this  way,  to  build  into  the  very- 
structure  of  his  language  a  monument  which  should 
for  all  time  give  expression  of  his  judgment  as  to 
the  unwisdom  of  polygamy. 

It  should  not  be  inferred,  from  what  has  been 
said,  that  woman  plays  no  other  part  in  Chinese 
home  life  than  one  of  service  and  drudgery.  She 
has  absolute  control  of  her  daughters  until  they 
are  lost  to  her  by  marriage  into  other  families. 
She  to  a  large  extent  shapes  the  lives  of  her  sons, 
and  commands  their  full  obedience  from  their  birth 
until  her  death.  The  old  women  of  a  Chinese  vil- 
lage not  only  dissect  and  disseminate  all  the  gos- 
sip and  scandal  afloat  in  the  community,  but  have 
a  very  influential  part  in  determining  public  opin- 
ion. They  form  what  may  be  called  an  undertow 
of  influence  in  village  affairs,  and  often  decide  mat- 
ters with  which  they  have  no  apparent  connection. 
This  might  be  expected  from  the  autocratic  posi- 
tion occupied  by  them  in  regard  to  their  sons. 
During  more  than  thirty  years  two  women,  the 
wives  of  the  Emperor  Hsien  Feng,  and  known  to 
foreigners  as  the  Empress  Dowager  and  Empress 
Mother,  have  practically  controlled  the  domestic 
and  foreign  affairs  of  China.  In  all  important 
crises  their  judgment  and  will  have  been  accepted  as 
final  authority,  and  have  determined  the  policy  of 
the  government.  Yet,  in  obedience  to  Oriental 
etiquette,  they  live  in  such  strict  seclusic^n  that, 
when  a  council  of  State  becomes  necessary,  they  are 
indeed  present,  but  concealed  by  a  curtain,     Their 


ciri.vESE  iro.vF.  tjfe.  79 

voices  are  heard  by  tlie  meml)ers  of  the  Cabinet, 
but  their  faces  are  never  seen.  One  of  them  died 
some  few  years  ago,  but  the  other  is  still  vigorous, 
active,  and  potential  in  public  affairs. 

These  two  women  exactly  illustrate  the  peculiar 
position  occupied  by  women  in  the  Chinese  Em- 
pire. As  wives  they  apparently  have  no  influence 
whatever  ;  as  mothers  they  are  all-powerful.  Dur- 
ing the  life  and  reign  of  their  husband,  lisien  Feng, 
the  two  were  merely  the  puppets  of  his  pleasure. 
They  were  unheard,  unthought  of  in  any  other 
capacity.  lUit  with  his  deeith,  in  1862,  came  their 
period  of  power  which,  in  the  case  of  one  of  them, 
has  lasted  until  the  present  time.  And  this  is  all 
the  more  remarkable  as  showing  maternal  control 
to  be  an  actual  power,  in  view  of  the  fact  that 
for  nearly  twenty  years  of  this  period — since  Janu- 
arv,  1875 — the  nominal  Emperor  has  not  been  tlie 
son  of  either  of  these  women.  He  is  a  nephew  of 
their  deceased  husband.  Yet  his  respect  and 
obedience  to  the  will  of  his  aunt  are  absolute. 

Then  it  is  as  true  in  China  as  everywhere  else 
that  a  stronger  will  and  character  always  domi- 
nates the  weaker.  Instances  arc  not  rare  in  which 
the  Chinese  wife,  hedged  in  and  bound  down  by 
the  most  rigid  rules  of  custom  and  law,  unedu- 
cated and  unrecognized  except  as  a  sort  of  upper 
servant,  guides  and  controls  her  husband,  and  makes 
him  the  mere  echo  of  her  opinion.  Still  further,  a 
Chinese  woman  never  forgets  that  she  has  a  tongue. 
Whatever  may  be  her  capacity  in  other  directifuis, 
5n  shrill  and  voluminous  scolding  slie  lias  no  eciual. 
Whoever  luis  once  listened  to  a  good  sj^ecimen  of 


So  THE   REAL    CHI X AM  AX. 

her  efforts  has  noticed  how  the  ver}'  atmosphere 
seems  to  quiver  and  collapse  under  the  torrent  of 
abusive  language  which  is  poured  forth,  picturesque 
in  its  adjectives,  and,  fortunately,  untranslatable 
into  English.  Whoever  has  once  heard  this  will 
readily  believe  that  in  her  tongue  the  Chinese  wife 
possesses  a  vi'eapon  against  which  man  has  no  de- 
fence. He  must  either  run  or  surrender.  He  re- 
ceives no  comfort  from  his  masculine  neighbors. 
They  jeer  at  and  ridicule  him,  not  at  all  from 
sympathy  with  the  wife,  but  because  he  has  failed 
to  keep  her  in  proper,  that  is  to  say  quiet,  subjec- 
tion. 

The  ties  of  locality  are  ver}-  strong  among  the 
Chinese,  and  hence  new  families,  as  they  are 
formed,  are  commonly  established  in  the  imme- 
diate vicinity  of  that  from  whicli  they  sprung.  In 
this  wa}^  one  sees  groups  or  nests  of  families  gath- 
ered about  the  parent  stock.  Whole  villages  may 
be  found  composed  almost  exclusively  of  persons 
of  the  same  name,  and  containing  four  or  five 
generations  of  the  same  family.  "  Smithville," 
"  Jonesville,"  or,  to  translate  more  exactly,  "The 
Village  of  the  Chang  Family,"  "  The  Town  of  the 
Wang  Family,"  "  The  Li  Family  Cross-Roads'  — 
these  and  similar  names  of  hamlets,  villages,  and 
cities  are  so  frequent  throughout  China  that  tliey 
form  a  large  fraction  of  all  the  names  of  places 
in  the  empire.  Tlic  property  of  each  family,  and 
more  particularly  the  real  estate,  is  largely  held 
and  worked  in  common,  and  divisions  of  it  only 
occur  upon  the  death  of  tlie  malt'  head  of  tlie  name. 
All  members  of  the   family,  old  and  young,   male 


CIlhXESE  IIOMJi   LIFE.  83 

cind  female,  take  part  in  the  labor.  If  it  is  a  farm, 
all  go  to  the  fields  together  at  daybreak  and  spend 
the  day  at  work.  Women  are  as  comnKjnly  seen 
engaged  in  such  labor  as  men.  I  once  saw  a  Chi- 
nese farmer  holding  a  plough  which  was  drawn  by 
a  cow,  a  donkey,  and  his  wife,  the  three  harnessed 
and  pulling  together. 

The  class  of  "  globe  trotters,"  as  they  are  some- 
what irreverently  called — persons  of  wealth,  who 
travel  about  the  earth  sight-seeing — form  a  never- 
solved  puzzle  to  the  Chinese,  His  home  ties  are 
very  strong.  He  never  travels  for  pleasure,  and 
never  leaves  home  except  when  obliged  to  do  so 
upon  either  public  or  private  business.  While  ab- 
sent, whether  in  foreign  lands  or  in  some  other 
part  of  his  own  country,  he  always  looks  upon  him- 
self as  an  exile,  is  always  more  or  less  homesick, 
and,  no  matter  how  dirty  and  squalid  his  native 
village  may  be,  he  looks  forward  to  his  return  to 
the  wretched  place  as  the  chief  joy  of  his  life. 

The  Chinese  is  not,  and  cannot  become,  a  colo- 
nist without  an  entire  change  of  his  natural  disposi- 
tion. True,  he  is  found  in  America,  North  and 
South,  in  the  Australasian  colonies,  in  Burmah, 
Siam,  the  East  Indian  Archipelago,  in  Java,  and 
Japan.  But  in  none  of  these  places  is  his  stay  per- 
manent. He  is  nowhere  a  colonist,  but  a  temporary 
migrant.  He  resembles  closely  the  migratory  flocks 
of  birds  who  feed  in  one  region  for  many  months, 
but  build  their  nests  and  rear  their  young  invari- 
ably in  some  spot  well  remembered  but  far  distant. 
He  is  driven  by  emergency  away  from  home,  goes 
into  what  he   considers  as   exile,   but    has  all   his 


84  THE  REAL    CHINA  MA  AK 

plans  for  return  carefully  made  before  he  sets  out, 
and  these  plans  and  the  hopes  connected  with  them 
are  never  absent  from  his  mind.  A  careful  exami- 
nation of  the  lists  of  steerage  passengers  upon  the 
various  lines  of  steamships  running  between  China 
and  the  foreign  countries  to  which  the  Chinese  go, 
if  the  examination  were  so  extended  as  to  cover  a 
considerable  term  of  years,  would  show  that  prac- 
tically all  who  leave  the  empire  return  again.  They 
come  and  go  like  the  migratory  birds  just  men- 
tioned. Those  who  are  so  unfortunate  as  to  die 
in  exile  have  almost  invariably  made  arrangements 
by  which  their  bodies  shall  be  carried  back  to 
their  native  village,  there  to  rest  with  their  an- 
cestors. It  would  astonish  the  people  of  this  land 
could  they  know  the  total  number  of  Chinese  who 
have  been  in  it  during  the  past  twenty  years,  and 
compare  that  total  with  the  marvelously  small 
number  of  graves  of  the  Chinese  found  among  us. 
And  those  whose  bones  have  been  left  to  lie  perma- 
nently here  were,  beyond  question,  waifs,  poor  un- 
fortunates without  home  ties  or  friends  in  their 
native  land. 

The  Chinese  is  an  acute  and  careful  merchant,  a 
patient,  faithful,  and  diligent  laborer,  but,  above 
everything  else,  he  is  a  lover  of  his  home.  While 
he  wanders  all  over  the  earth,  and  submits  to  all 
sorts  of  privations,  abuses,  and  hardships,  he  is 
only  a  wanderer  whose  deepest,  all-absorbing  de- 
sire is  for  home,  a  quiet  old  age  with  his  family, 
and,  more  important  than  all  else,  burial  in  the 
tomb  of  his  fathers.  This  is  true  of  him  not  only 
when  necessity  drives  him  into  foreign  lands,  but 


CHINESE    HOME   LIFE.  S5 

equally  so  when  he  establishes  himself  in  some 
other  part  of  his  own  empire.  It  is  not  so  much  a 
love  of  China  that  deterniincs  him  in  this  ]")eculiar- 
ity  as  a  local  tie.  A  Cantonese  never  becomes  a 
permanent  resident  of  Pekini^,  for  example.  He 
may  1^0  tliere  on  !)usiness — many  of  them  do  ;  but 
they  arc  alwa}'s  "  pilgrims  and  strangers,"  and 
their  plans  invariably  culminate  in  a  permanent 
home  in  the  village  of  their  birth.  If  one  of  them 
dies  in  Peking,  poor  and  friendless,  the  charitably 
disposed  see  to  it  that  his  body  is  sent  home  for 
burial.  There  are  guilds,  or  benevolent  societies, 
organized  in  every  large  city  in  the  empire,  one  of 
the  principal  objects  of  such  organization  being  to 
send  home  for  burial  such  unfortunates  as  have 
died  away  from  their  families.  The  so-called  "  Six 
Companies"  of  San  Francisco,  about  which  so  much 
and  so  many  lies  have  been  written,  has  this  among 
the  other  purposes  of  their  organization.  A  trav- 
eler in  China  will  occasionally  meet  a  coffin  car- 
ried suspended  between  two  long  poles,  and  the 
ends  of  these  poles  fastened  to  the  pack-saddles  of 
two  mules.  Upon  the  head  of  the  coffin  is  a  wicker 
crate  containing  a  white  rooster.  The  coffin  con- 
tains the  body  of  some  man  who  has  died  away 
from  home,  and  is  being  thus  carried,  perhaps 
across  the  entire  stretch  of  the  empire,  to  its  proper 
resting-place.  The  looster,  which  must  be  of  spot- 
less white,  unblemished  by  a  single  black  feather, 
is  supposed  to  guide  or  lead  the  soul  of  the  dead 
man  in  the  long  journey,  or  to  persuade  it  to  ac- 
company the  material  part.  And  the  livelier  the 
young   rooster  is,  the   more  he  struts  about  in   his 


86  THE   REAL    CHI X AM  AN. 

cage  and  crows,  the  more  successful  he  is  supposed 
to  be  in  the  performance  of  his  function. 

This  intensely  strong  tie  of  locality,  developed, 
strengthened,  and  intensified  as  it  has  been  through 
a  thousand  generations,  is  reinforced  by  what  is  to 
them  a  religion,  and  thus  a  final  return,  alive  or 
dead,  becomes  a  sacred  necessity  in  the  heart  of 
every  Chinese.  Reference  of  course  is  made  to  the 
so-called  "  worship  of  ancestors." 

While  we  may  and  must  condemn  tliis  worsiiip 
as  a  form  of  idolatry,  I  must  confess  that  I  have 
never  seen  a  Chinese  coffin  being  carried,  either  by 
sea  or  by  land,  on  its  long  journey  back  to  the  na- 
tive village  of  its  occupant,  without  being  remind- 
ed of  the  beautiful  bit  of  history  found  in  the  early 
part  of  the  Bible,  in  which  it  is  written  that  Abra- 
ham bought  a  field  and  a  cave  for  a  burial-place 
for  Sarah,  his  wife,  in  Hebron.  Abraham  himself 
was  buried  there,  and  so  were  Isaac  and  Rebecca. 
After  the  deatli  of  Jacob,  Joseph  and  his  brethren 
carried  the  body  of  their  father  from  Egypt  back 
to  Canaan,  and  laid  it  there  beside  Leah.  Joseph 
exacted  a  jiromise  from  his  children  that  his  ashes 
too  should  be  laid  in  the  same  tomb.  And  this 
promise  was  fulfilled  two  centuries  after  his  death. 
Surely  one  can  hardly  fail  to  respect  in  the  Chinese 
a  feeling  which,  they  hixve  in  common  with  the  ear- 
liest members  of  the  human  family,  and  which  they 
have  carried  into  practice  during  thousands  of 
years. 

The  Chinese  Government  has  taken  advantage 
of  this  peculiarity  of  the  people  in  a  curious  way. 
One  of  the  essential  conditions  required  of  any  for- 


Clil\li.SK    JIOMK    LIFE.  8^ 

elgner  who  may  desire  to  become  a  naturalized  sub- 
ject of  China  is  that  he  should  own  a  graveyard, 
have  a  burial-place  within  the  limits  of  the  empire. 
Such  ownership  is  regarded  as  final  evidence  of  his 
intention  to  become  a  permanent  resident. 

In  another  way  the  government  has  for  many 
centuries  exercised  its  influence  in  a  manner  calcu- 
lated to  keep  the  people  at  home,  and  to  minimize 
and  counteract  any  tendency  to  change  either  their 
residence  or  occupation.  One  of  the  sections  of 
tlic  Code  of  Laws  orders  that  persons  and  families 
truly  represent  their  profession  in  life,  and  refrain 
from  altering  it.  "  Generation  after  generation, 
they  must  not  change  nor  alter  it" — so  the  statute 
reads.  The  wisdom  of  such  a  law  in  its  effect  upon 
a  people  already  too  little  inclined  to  favor  change 
of  any  sort  may,  perhaps,  be  questioned.  To-day 
it  is  practically  a  dead  letter.  But  it  has  had  a 
double  influence  upon  the  nation.  It  has  caused 
them  to  hand  down  their  various  callings  and  oc- 
cupations from  father  to  son  without  variation  or 
improvement  in  methods  or  processes.  It  has,  at 
least,  had  a  part  in  restraining  China  from  all  prog- 
ress, until  she  is  centuries  behind  the  age.  And  it 
has,  indirectly,  segregated  the  people.  A  man 
naturally  remains  where  his  business  is  ;  and  if  that 
business  must  be  that  of  his  father,  he  naturally 
follows  it  where  he  finds  it — at  home.  His  interests 
centre  there,  and  he  seldom  wanders  far  afield. 

I  once  asked  an  old  man  whom  I  saw  leaning 
against  the  sunny  side  of  a  mud  wall,  as  a  slight  pro- 
tection from  the  piercing  January  wind,  how  far  it 
was  to  a  Chinese  city  where  I  was  planning  to  spend 


8S  THE   REAL    CI/IXAJfA?/. 

the  night.  He  replied  that  he  did  not  know.  Sur- 
prised and  incredulous  at  his  answer,  I  asked  him 
whether  he  too  was  a  traveler.  "  Oh,  no  !"  he 
said  ;  "  I  live  just  over  there,"  nodding  his  head 
at  a  comfortable-appearing  Chinese  house  not  a 
hundred  yards  distant.  "  How  long  have  you  lived 
there  ?"  asked  I.  "  All  my  life,"  said  he,  "  and  I 
am  seventy-eight  years  old."  "  And  you  do  not 
know  how  far  it  is  to  such  a  city  ?"  persisted  I,  in- 
credulous at  his  statement.  "  No.  Why  should 
I?"  he  responded.  "I  have  never  been  there." 
This  was  more  amazing  still.  "  You  are  seventy- 
eight  years  old,  have  lived  here  all  your  life,  and 
never  been  there!"  I  exclaimed.  "Of  course 
not,"  the  old  man  stoutly  retorted.  "  Why  should 
I  go  there  ?  I  live  here."  The  city  named  was  less 
than  ten  miles  distant  ! 

The  effect  of  the  law  mentioned  in  encouraging 
the  permanence  of  all  things,  though  not  in  the 
wisest  sense  of  that  word,  may  have  another  illus- 
tration. In  every  city  of  considerable  size  in  China 
there  will  be  found  a  certain  number  of  shops  for 
the  repair  of  clocks  and  watches.  No  such  articles 
are  manufactured  in  China,  few  people  own  them, 
and  the  importation  is  comparatively  small.  A  trav- 
eler might  be  interested  to  learn  where  these  shops 
find  their  customers,  and,  above  all,  where  they 
learned  their  triide.  The  imswer  is  simple.  They 
know  little  or  nothing  of  their  business.  They  are 
invariably  Roman  Catholics,  and  inherited  both 
their  religion  and  their  calling  from  their  ancestors, 
who  were  converts  and  students  of  the  very  early 
Catholic  missionaries  in  China,  more  than  two  hun- 


CIIIXESE    JJOMK   JJFE 


89 


dred  years  ago.  And  they  only  know  as  much,  or 
as  little,  of  clock  and  watch  repairing  as  the  mis- 
sionaries were  able  to  teach  their  ancestors  then. 

Honor  thy  father  and  thy  mother"  is  a  com- 
mand so  inwrought  into  the  very  fibre  of  the  Chi- 
nese nature,  so  sustained  by  public  opinion,  and  so 


WAI.I,    ABOUT    PEKING. 


carefully  reinforced  by  law,  that  he  who  neglects  it 
even  in  a  small  degree,  if  he  escapes  punishment  as 
a  criminal,  is  certain  to  l)e  ch'iven  from  society  as  a 
leprobate  and  a  heathen.  It  is,  in  fact,  carried  to 
such  an  unreasonable  extreme  that  it  has  practi- 
cally become  a  form  of  tyranny.  It  leaves  no  room 
for  independent  action  or  personal  judgment,  and 
a  man  cannot  exercise  his  individual  powers  of 
manhood  until  he  is  too  far  advanced  in  years  to 
liave  their  exercise    productive   of   growth    or   any 


90  THE    REAL    ClfEVAMA.V. 

Other  beneficial  results.  At  the  same  time,  one  of 
the  most  pleasing  features  of  Chinese  home  life  is 
the  deference  and  respect  shown  to  their  elders  by 
the  younger  members  of  the  household.  Such 
nondescript  creations  as  half-grown  boys  superior 
in  imaginary  wisdom  and  in  practical  experience 
with  the  seamy  side  of  life  to  their  fathers  are 
unknown  there.  Such  phrases  as  "  the  old  man," 
"  the  governor,"  "  the  old  woman"  are  not  found 
in  the  language — at  least  as  applicable  to  parents. 
Age  is  invariably  respected  and  honored.  A  ragged, 
dirty,  and  foul-mouthed  beggar-woman  upon  the 
streets  has  so  much  of  reverence  shown  to  her  gray 
hairs  that  she  is  never  addressed  with  any  other 
term  than  "  lao  tai  tai" — "  venerable  lady."  Gray- 
headed  ministers  of  State,  burdened  with  heavy 
cares  of  office,  still  find  time  to  attend  upon  their 
mothers,  who  may  be  toothless,  blind,  and  petu- 
lant with  the  fretfulness  of  second  childhood,  with 
the  same  assiduous  care  and  obedience  to  all  their 
unreasonable  whims  that  they  were  taught  to  give 
in  boyhood.  If  old  age  is,  indeed,  the  reward  of 
filial  obedience  and  honor,  then  the  average  length 
of  life  in  China  ought  to  be  greater  than  anywhere 
else  on  earth. 

Sometimes  this  respect  and  affection  is  shown  in 
what  would  seem  to  us  as  a  questionable  form,  but 
it  is  always  in  accordance  with  Chinese  ideas  of 
propriety.  It  is  no  uncommon  sight  in  Peking  or 
any  other  city  of  the  empire  to  see  a  company  of 
men,  headed  by  a  band  of  music  and  many  ban- 
ners, parading  the  streets  in  a  long  procession,  at 
the    centre    of    which    are    two    coffins.     The   ab- 


CHINESE  HOME   LIEE.  9 1 

sence  of  white,  which  is  the  national  mourning 
color,  the  lively  strains  of  music,  and  the  general 
air  of  pleasure  throughout  tlie  members  of  the 
party,  makes  it  certain  that  they  are  not  perform- 
ing the  last  sad  rites  for  the  dead.  The  two  coffins 
have  been  purchased  by  the  sons  of,  say,  Mr.  and 
Mrs.  Chang,  as  a  slight  token  of  filial  affection  and 
honor.  And  they  are  being  carried  with  great 
pomp  and  display  to  the  home  of  the  old  people, 
to  whom  they  will  be  presented  with  pleasant 
speeches  and  appropriate  replies  from  the  sur- 
prised recipients.  By  us  such  a  present  would  be 
regarded  much  as  we  regard  the  action  of  a  friend 
who  pulls  out  his  watch  in  the  midst  of  a  call  we 
are  making  upon  him  as  a  hint  that  we  had  best  be 
taking  our  departure.  But  Chinese  parents  have 
no  such  squeamish  notions.  They  accept  these 
finely  lacquered  and  decorated  coffins  as  a  final 
proof  of  the  forethought  and  affectionate  care  of 
their  children.  They  are  placed  in  the  state  apart- 
ments of  their  home,  carefully  protected  from  in- 
jury, and  shown  with  great  pride  to  their  friends. 
The  Chinese  may  not  have  expensive  pianos  in 
their  drawing-rooms,  but  they  are  frequently  pro- 
vided in  advance  with  the  casket  which  is  to  fur- 
nish their  last  resting-place  ;  and  this,  if  less  noisy, 
is  equally  satisfying  to  their  pride.  The  lugubri- 
ous side  of  the  gift  never  strikes  them.  They  see 
in  it  only  the  love,  respect,  and  forethought  of 
their  children.  It  assures  their  minds  upon  one 
point  which  is  of  great  importance  to  a  Chinese  : 
it  is  a  present  pledge  of  an  honorable,  dignified 
funeral. 


92  THE   REAL    C/I/XJMAY. 

It  may  be  said  in  passing,  thongh  not  strictly 
germane  to  tlie  subject  of  this  chapter,  that  the 
Chinese  often  provide  themselves  with  coffins  years 
in  advance  of  death,  and  when  in  robust  health. 
These  are  carefully  put  aside  against  the  day  of 
need.  A  childless  widow,  for  many  years  in  my 
employ,  as  a  result  of  the  closest  economical  use  of 
her  wages  of  $4  a  month,  at  last  was  able  to  save  a 
sum  necessary  to  buy  herself  a  coffin  of  plain,  un- 
carved,  and  unvarnished  cedar.  Having  no  home 
in  which  to  store  it,  she  accepted  the  offer  of  a  dis- 
tant relative,  a  farmer  living  several  miles  out  of 
town,  to  give  it  room  in  his  house.  For  three 
years  she  made  semi-annual  pilgrimages  upon  a 
donkey  to  this  place  of  storage  in  order  that  she 
might  assure  herself  that  her  coffin  was  safe  and 
kept  in  good  order.  But  at  last  she  returned  from 
one  of  these  journeys  heartbroken,  with  her  tale  of 
woe.  Her  relative,  being  hard  pressed  for  money, 
had  pawned  her  coffin,  and  then  had  put  the  cli- 
max upon  her  disaster  by  selling  the  pawn-ticket. 
Undismayed  by  this  unfortunate  experience,  the 
old  woman  began  again  to  save  funds,  only  a  cash 
or  two  at  a  time,  w^th  which  to  buy  another  coffin  ; 
but  cliolcra  seized  her  before  the  task  was  com- 
pleted, and  friends  gave  her  the  desire  of  her  heart, 
a  decent  burial. 


CHAPTER  V. 


CHINESE     SOCIAL     LIFE 


The  Chinese  devote  little 
time  to  amusement  and  rec- 
reation. To  the  poor,  who 
form  an  immense  majority  of 
the  population,  life  is  a  never- 
ending  struggle  against  starvation.  They  rise  at 
dawn  and  work  until  dark,  have  no  Sundays  or  other 
rest  days.  They  have  but  three  established  holi- 
days in  the  year.  Weddings  and  funerals  form 
their  only  excitements,  and  the  only  luxuries  of 
which  they  dream  are  an  ounce  or  two  of  meat  at 
very  rare  intervals  with  their  invariable  food  of 
rice  and  cabbage,  and  the  necessary  tea  and  to- 
bacco. With  them  half  a  day  of  idleness  means 
half  a  day  of  hunger,  and  they  appear  to  lack  both 
opportunity  and  capacity  for  what  is  called  social 
enjoyment.  The  middle  class  are  extremely  busy, 
but  appear  to  take  life  more  easily.  Many  of  the 
officials  have  an  excess  of  leisure,  but  those  who 
are  high  in  office  and  in  favcjrwith  the  Emperor  are 
sadly  overworked. 

I  once  asked  a  member  of  the  Chinese  Cabinet, 
who  was  complaining  of  fatigue  and  exhaustion, 
for  a  statement  of  his  daily  routine  of  duty.  He 
replied   that   he   left  home   every  morning  at  two 


94  THE   REAL    CHIXAMAN. 

o'clock,  as  he  was  on  duty  at  the  palace  from  three 
until  six,  and  if  the  Emperor  was  to  give  him  audi- 
ence upon  public  affairs,  the  interview  always  took 
place  before  dawn.  As  a  member  of  the  Privy 
Council,  he  was  engaged  in  that  body  from  six 
until  nine.  He  was  President  of  the  War  Depart- 
ment, and  hence  was  there  from  nine  until  eleven. 
Being  an  officer  of  the  Supreme  Court,  he  was 
necessarily  in  daily  attendance  upon  that  body  from 
eleven  until  two.  And  as  he  was  the  senior  and 
responsible  minister  of  the  Foreign  Office,  he  spent 
the  hours  from  two  until  five  or  six  there  every 
afternoon. 

These  were  his  regular  daily  duties.  In  addi- 
tion to  them,  he  was  frequently  appointed  upon 
special  commissions,  boards  of  inquiry,  or  to  posts 
involving  additional  labor,  and  these  he  sandwiched 
in  between  the  others  as  well  as  he  could.  He 
stated  that  he  never  reached  home  before  seven  or 
eight  o'clock  in  the  evening,  and  that  his  connec- 
tion w^th  his  family  was  merely  nominal,  as  he  was 
never  able  to  eat  a  me^il  with  them,  and  really 
knew  less  about  them  than  he  did  about  the  affairs 
of  his  master,  the  Emperor.  Restaurants  are  con- 
nected with  all  the  various  offices  mentioned  by 
him,  and  at  these,  when  he  had  time,  he  got  his 
food.  He  died  six  months  after  the  conversation 
here  reported,  literalh'  of  overwork  and  exhaus- 
tion.* Other  able  Chinese  officials  have  been  known 
to  sacrifice   their  lives   in   the  same  way.     Indeed, 

*  This  statement  was  originally  given  to  the  public,  several 
years  ago,  in  an  article  written  for  the  Youth's  Companion  by 
the  author  of  \\n%  voluriie. 


I 


CIIIXKSK    SOCIAL   LIFE.  97 

they  have  no  possible  way  of  escape.  The  will  of 
the  Emperor  is  a  final  command,  and  they  can  only 
struggle  on,  overtaxing  both  Ijraiu  and  body,  until 
one  or  the  other  gives  way,  or  the  utter  collapse 
of  both  sends  them  into  a  premature  grave.  Such 
men  take  no  part  in  Chinese  social  life. 

Oriental  ideas  of  society  are  based  upon  a  very 
different  model  from  those  in  Western  lands.  They 
are  so  hampered  and  confined  by  conventionalities, 
etiquette,  and  peculiar  notions  of  what  is  proper 
and  becoming,  that  general  society,  as  we  use  the 
phrase,  thereby  meaning  the  intermingling  of  the 
two  sexes,  is  absolutely  impossible.  There  are  no 
social  occasions  or  assemblies  in  the  empire  where 
men  and  women  meet  as  friends  and  entertain  each 
other.  Such  modes  of  harmless  amusement  are 
impossible  without  an  entire  reformation  of  the 
Chinese  social  code.  The  rules  of  proper  inter- 
course between  the  sexes,  or,  to  speak  more  exact- 
ly, the  rules  forbidding  any  intercourse  of  any  sort 
whatever,  are  rigid,  inflexible,  and  admit  of  no 
exceptions. 

The  Chinese,  even  in  the  case  of  old  friends, 
never  make  inquiry  as  to  the  health  of  the  female 
members  of  each  other's  families,  or  refer  to  them 
in  any  way.  With  them  the  question,  "  How  is 
your  wife?"  which  is  so  common  and  innocent  a 
civility  elsewhere,  would  be  regarded  as  discourte- 
ous and  insulting,  even  between  acquaintances  of 
years'  standing.  Men  who  have  grown  gray  to- 
gether will  inquire  about  and  discuss  the  qualities 
of  each  other's  sons  with  the  utmost  freedom,  but 
they  may  never  mention   the   female   members   of 


pS  THE  kEAL    CIIEVAMAN: 

the  families,  even  to  ask  concerning  a  little  girl  only- 
eight  or  nine  years  of  age.  The  nearest  they  may 
approach  this  forbidden  topic  is  by  the  use  of  a 
phrase  generally  interpreted  as  meaning  "your 
family,"  but  which  is,  in  fact,  far  less  direct  and 
to  the  point  than  that  expression.  An  illustration 
of  this  social  law  is  worthy  of  being  recited. 

In  May,  1875,  news  reached  Peking  that  an  hon- 
ored Chinese  official,  then  resident  in  the  United 
States,  had  married  an  American  lady.  Soon  after 
the  receipt  of  this  intelligence,  the  United  States 
Minister  and  I  had  occasion  to  visit  the  Chinese 
Foreign  Office.  The  minister  informed  me  that  he 
intended  to  congratulate  the  Chinese  officials  upon 
this  marriage.  I  advised  him  that  it  was  contrary 
to  Chinese  notions  of  propriety  to  refer  to  such  sub- 
jects, and  that  his  remarks  would  be  misunderstood. 
However,  when  the  party  were,  as  usual,  seated 
around  a  table  at  the  Foreign  Office,  tea  had  been 
served,  and  the  ordinary  salutations  exchanged, 
the  minister  requested  me  to  say  to  Prince  Kung, 
then  at  the  head  of  the  government,  that  "  the  re- 
lations between  the  United  States  and  China,  which 
had  been  of  so  friendly  a  character  for  many  years, 
ought  to  be  much  strengthened  by  the  fact  that  a 
distinguished  Chinese  officer  had  married  a  pretty 
Yankee  girl."  I  again  remonstrated  with  the  min- 
ister, but  upon  his  renewed  request,  I  repeated  this 
remark  in  Chinese  to  the  prince.  We  were  seated 
around  a  circular  table,  and  besides  the  prince  and 
two  foreigners  there  were  present  six  members  of 
the  Cabinet,  venerabh,'  and  gray-headed  men.  For 
a  moment  there  was  a  dead   silence.      Each  minis- 


CHINESE    SOCIAL   LIFE.  99 

ter  of  State  looked  down  at  his  plate.  None  dared 
to  speak.  Then  Prince  Kung  raised  his  head, 
looked  at  me  for  another  moment  in  silence,  and, 
drawing  a  long  breath,  remarked  :  "  It  is  fearfully 
hot  to-day."  This  was  the  sole  outcome  of  our 
minister's  well-meant  but  ill-timed  congratulations. 

Not  only  are  mixed  assemblages  of  the  two  sexes 
forbidden  by  the  Chinese  social  code,  but  husband 
and  wife  are  not  expected  to  appear  together  in 
public.  There  are  necessary  modifications  to  this 
rule,  as,  for  example,  when  families  are  traveling 
long  distances.  Even  in  such  cases  the  female 
members  of  the  family  have  their  own  servants, 
who  look  after  their  comfort,  and  the  master 
ignores  their  presence  as  far  as  possible.  In  point 
of  fact,  the  entire  domestic  relationship  which 
every  man  in  China  has  is  universally  and  abso- 
lutely ignored  and  tabooed.  Every  one  knows,  as 
a  matter  of  course,  that  it  exists,  but  no  one  ever 
mentions  or  recognizes  it.  A  Chinese  gentleman 
very  rarely  appears  upon  the  street  with  his  wife, 
and,  when  he  does,  never  walks  beside,  but  follows 
her.  And  under  no  circumstances  could  he  be  in- 
duced to  ride  in  the  same  carriage  with  her.  It 
would  irretrievably  ruin  his  reputation  to  do  so. 

An  amusing  wrangle  wliich  once  took  place  in 
Peking  between  a  foreigner  and  a  party  of  Chinese 
muleteers  illustrates  Oriental  prejudice  upon  this 
point.  A  party  of  foreigners  were  setting  out  in 
mule  litters — large  sedan  chairs  borne  by  two 
mules — on  a  journey  of  five  days.  One  gentleman 
desired,  for  the  sake  of  company,  to  occupy  the 
same  litter  with  his  wife.     With  a  little  crowding 


lOO  77//-;    KliAL    CIIIXAMAX. 

it  could  be  made  to  carry  two  persons.  The  mule- 
teers at  once  protested,  and  refused  to  proceed. 
They  insisted  that  it  was  a  gross  breach  of  Chinese 
propriety,  and  that  they  would  be  abused  and 
jeered  at  throughout  the  journey.  And  they  more 
than  hinted  that  if  the  foreigner  cared  nothing  for 
his  own  or  his  wife's  reputation,  they  must  protect 
theirs,  and  they  would  not  be  parties  to  any  such 
scandalous  proceedings.  No  persuasion  and  no 
offer  of  extra  wages  would  move  them.  To  them 
it  was  a  question  of  morals,  not  of  money.  The 
scheme  was  of  necessity  abandoned. 

Another  incident  somewhat  in  the  same  line  de- 
serves record,  since  it  shows  how  very  broadly  our 
ideas  of  social  intercourse  between  persons  of  op- 
posite sexes  differ  from  the  Chinese,  and  also  what 
serious  injury  may  be  done  by  running  counter  to 
their  prejudices.  The  headquarters  of  the  Chinese 
students  who  were  some  years  ago  sent  to  this 
country  to  be  educated,  under  the  care  and  at  the 
expense  of  the  Chinese  Government,  were  in  Hart- 
ford, Conn.  Some  of  the  young  men  went  to 
church  and  Sunday-school.  One  of  them,  walking 
home  from  church  one  afternoon  American  fash- 
ion— vvliich  is  to  say,  with  a  young  lady — met  the 
Chinese  director  of  this  educational  mission,  as  it 
was  called,  out  driving.  The  young  gentleman 
politely  bowed,  and  removed  his  hat  to  his  supe- 
rior. The  conservative  old  disciple  of  Confucius 
C(juld  hardly  credit  his  eyes.  Here  was  one  of  the 
boys  under  his  charge,  for  whose  moral  and  men- 
tal training  he  was  responsible,  actually  walking  in 
full  daylight  upon  the  streets  with  a  young  woman 


I 


CIIIXESE    SOCIAL   LIFE. 


who  was  neither  his  sister  nor  his  first  cousin. 
This  fact  alone  was  quite  sufficient  to  stamp  the 
reputation  of  both  the  young  people  as  hopelessly 
bad.     But  to  complete  his  offence,  the  youn^^  man 


FRONT    OF    OFFICIAL    RESIDENCE. 


had  the  effrontery  to  remove  his  hat  before  his 
superior,  an  act  which  of  itself  was  a  grave  breach 
of  Chinese  etiquette.  The  incident  was  reported 
to  Peking,  where  it  was  looked  upon,  as  the  director 


102  THE  REAL    CHINAMAN. 

himself  viewed  and  characterized  it,  as  an  evidence 
that  the  students  had  quite  lost  their  good  manners 
and  sense  of  decency.  With  other  and  more  seri- 
ous causes,  it  led  to  the  recall  of  the  entire  body  of 
students,  and  the  abandonment  of  the  enterprise. 

Chinese  ladies  do  a  considerable  amount  of  call- 
ing, and  have  other  social  duties,  exclusively  among 
themselves.  They  evidently  have  the  same  ques- 
tions of  dress  and  fashions  to  discuss  that  their  sis- 
ters in  other  lands  find  so  absorbing.  While  the  cut 
of  their  garments  never  changes,  being  exactly  the 
same  to-day  as  it  was  two  centuries  ago,  the  style 
of  decoration  varies  from  year  to  year.  They  never 
shop  except  in  the  retirement  of  their  own  apart- 
ments, to  which  all  articles  which  they  may  desire 
to  purchase  are  taken.  It  is  said  that  they  gamble 
and  even  take  opium  "  socially,"  but  of  the  truth 
or  falsity  of  the  statement  I  have  no  certain  knowl- 
edge. It  is  difficult  to  conceive  what  amusement 
they  can  have,  or  how  they  manage  to  pass  the 
hours,  either  in  their  own  homes  or  when  congre- 
gated together  at  sociid  afternoon  feminine  teas. 
They  do  no  work,  as  a  retinue  of  servants  is  pro- 
vided to  attend  to  all  household  duties.  None  of 
them  can  either  read  or  write.  As  an  evidence 
that  they  are  ladies,  and  as  such  above  labor  of 
any  sort,  their  finger-nails  are  allowed  to  grow  to 
an  extraordinary  length — to  such  length,  in  fact, 
that  they  wear  gold  or  silver  "  nail  sheaths,"  much 
as  a  sewing-woman  wears  a  thimble — that  is  to 
say,  it  is  fitted  X.o  the  finger  in  the  same  manner, 
and  extends  the  length  and  in  the  natural  curve  of 
the  nail  which  it  encases.     Tiny  bells  dangle  from 


CJIIXESK    SOCIAL   LIFE.  103 

it  by  delicate  chiiins.  This  fashion  effectually  pre- 
vents them  from  busying  their  lingers  with  those 
trifling  bits  of  fancy  work  with  whicli  ladies  in 
other  lands  occui)y  so  many  spare  moments. 

The  women  of  the  poorer  classes  appeiir  to  have 
absolutely  no  ideas  beyond  the  range  of  household 
drudgery  and  food  and  clothing.  True,  they  love 
to  gather,  two  or  three  of  them,  under  the  shade 
of  a  tree  in  summer,  or  on  the  sunny  side  of  a  wall 
in  winter,  and  exchange  bits  of  gossip  about  neigh- 
borhood affairs.  But  no  idea  of  a  social  gathering, 
in  the  Western  sense  of  the  phrase,  can  be  said  to 
have  found  its  way  into  their  minds.  A  foreign 
lady  once  invited  several  of  these  poor  women, 
neighbors  and  acquaintances  of  each  other,  to 
spend  the  afternoon  with  her,  and  provided  for 
theni  a  very  simple  entertainment  of  buns  and  tea. 
In  due  time  these  articles  were  placed  upon  the 
table,  and  the  hostess,  being  called  from  the  room 
for  a  few  moments,  asked  her  guests  to  help  them- 
selves. Upon  her  return  she  found  that  they  had 
carefully  counted  out  to  each  woman  her  share  of 
the  buns,  an  odd  one  being  divided  with  the  most 
exact  justice  between  them  all,  and  each  had  taken 
her  share  and  a  cup  of  tea  to  a  corner  of  the  room, 
where  she  refreshed  herself  in  silence. 

In  Chinese  country  life  some  of  these  strict  rules 
of  separation  between  the  sexes  are,  in  a  very  mod- 
erate degree,  set  aside.  The  inhabitants  of  a  vil- 
lage will  raise  a  small  sum  by  subscription,  with 
which  to  construct  a  cheap  mat-shed  for  a  stage, 
and  employ  a  company  of  strolling  actors  to  per- 
form for  a  day  or  two  at  the  time  of  the  spring  and 


I04  THE   REAL    CHI  X AM  AX. 

autumn  festivals.  All  members  of  the  various 
families  attend  tliese  ;  but  the  women  and  girls  are 
carefully  seated  by  themselves  in  a  reserved  space, 
and  opportunities  for  general  intercourse  are  very 
slight.  In  the  larger  cities  ladies  sometimes  attend 
the  theatres,  which  there  are  permanently  estab- 
lished, but  they  always  occupy  secluded  and  care- 
fully screened  boxes.  It  is  naturally  impossible 
that  in  village  life,  where  men  and  boys,  women 
and  children,  all  go  together  to  the  fields  at  dawn 
and  work  there  together  until  dusk — that  under 
such  circumstances  the  same  absolute  restraints 
should  be  enforced  as  in  the  easier  seclusion  of 
town  life.  Yet  it  is  astonishing  how  keenly  the 
sharp  eyes  of  the  old  women  in  such  a  company  of 
laborers  watch  the  younger  women  and  men,  and 
how  little  of  familiar  conversation  is  allowed  be- 
tween them. 

There  is  another  reason  aside  from  this  separa- 
tion of  the  sexes  which  renders  many  of  what  we 
are  accustomed  to  regard  as  among  the  highest 
pleasures  of  social  life  impossible  in  China.  They 
are  totally  at  variance  with  Chinese  ideas  of  enjoy- 
ment. It  is  related  that  the  first  Chinese  minister 
to  this  country  was  once  invited  to  a  reception  in 
Washington,  where  dancing  was  the  principal  fea- 
ture of  the  evening's  entertainment.  After  watch- 
ing the  flushed  and  heated  dancers  for  some  time 
in  undisguised  amazement,  and  contrasting  tlieir 
violent  exercise  with  their  elegant  and  manifestly 
expensive  costumes,  he  turned  to  a  friend  and  in- 
quired :  "  Why  do  they  do  that  hard  work  ?  Can- 
not thev  afford  to  hire  some  one  to  do  it  f(jr  them  ?" 


CiriXKSE    SOCIAL    I.ll-K.  1 05 

The  accuracy  of  this  story  cannot  be  verified  ;  but 
if  it  is  not  true,  it  ought  to  be,  as  it  exactly  repre- 
sents the  Oriental  idea  of  much  of  what  we  consider 
as  pleasure.  His  conceptions  have  been  fixed  in 
a  totally  different  mould.  He  has,  indeed,  but  one 
model  in  life — the  Confucian.  A  gentleman  must 
be,  above  and  before  everything  else,  dignified  and 
stately  in  his  motions.  To  walk  rapidly  is  an 
offence  ;  to  run  is  absolutely  vicious.  And  to  him 
whirling  about  on  a  polished  floor  would,  if  men 
alone  were  engaged  in  it,  be  almost  a  proof  of  in- 
sanity. But  when  men  and  women  engaged  in  it 
locked  arm  in  arm,  if  his  notions  of  politeness  al- 
lowed him  to  characterize  his  view  of  the  amuse- 
ment, it  would  be  in  terms  far  from  complimentary. 
The  female  sex  has  no  place  in  his  idea  of  respect- 
able pleasures,  nor  has  violent  exercise  of  any  sort 
a  place  in  his  category  of  gentlemanly  amusements. 
Chinese  gentlemen  visit  and  entertain  each  other 
to  a  considerable  extent.  But  their  laborious  code 
of  etiquette,  elsewhere  described,  is  so  cumbersome 
and  vexatious  in  its  details  regarding  the  reciprocal 
duties  of  host  and  guest  as  to  destroy  all  spon- 
taneity of  action,  and  make  entertainment  a  bur- 
den rather  than  a  pleasure.  If,  in  calling  upon  a 
friend,  one  is  met  at  the  door  by  that  person,  and 
then  he  must  spend  five  minutes  with  him  in  a 
polite  wrangle  over  the  question  which  shall  first 
pass  the  portal,  it  being  absolutely  certain  at  the 
outset  which  shall  eventually  do  so  ;  and  if  this 
ready-made  sort  of  politeness  must  be  repeated 
over  and  over  again,  when  the  visitor  takes  his 
seat,  when  he  receives  the   inevitable  cup   of  tea, 


lo6  THE   REAL    CinXAMAY. 

and  at  every  other  point  and  movement  of  the  in- 
terview— if  making  social  calls  involves  all  this,  as 
it  does  in  Chinese  polite  society,  then  it  is  easy  to 
see  how  closely  social  intercourse  comes  to  being  a 
bore  and  a  nuisance. 

Many  Chinese  gentlemen  have  fine  libraries  of 
ancient  Chinese  authors,  and  are  able  to  talk  intel- 
ligently and  with  great  interest  about  their  own 
literature.  Many  of  them,  too,  make  a  special 
study  of  antique  porcelains,  jades,  coins,  litho- 
graphs and  paintings,  all  of  Chinese  origin,  and  to 
one  somewhat  familiar  with  these  subjects  they 
make  most  charming  companions.  In  discussing 
questions  relating  to  such  subjects  the  foreigner 
naturally  finds  himself  in  the  position  of  a  learner, 
his  Chinese  host  being  his  instructor.  And  he 
will  show  such  careful  research,  such  patient  detail 
in  his  investigations,  as  to  astonish  his  pupil  and 
arouse  his  admiration. 

It  requires  a  peculiar  course  of  instruction,  only 
obtainable  by  experience,  before  a  man  having 
Western  ideas  can  come  into  anything  approaching 
familiar  social  intercourse  with  a  Chinese  gentle- 
man. Each  has  to  make  so  many  allowances  for 
the  other,  their  courses  and  systems  of  education 
have  been  so  different,  their  mental  methods  are  so 
diverse,  their  respect  for  standard  authorities  rests 
upon  such  dissimilar  foundations — in  short,  each 
finds  so  many  points  of  what  he  regards  as  gross 
ignorance  in  the  other,  that  two  such  men  can  only 
come  by  slow  processes,  and  by  a  gradually  devel- 
oped mutual  forbearance,  to  be  familiar  friends. 
By  way  of  illustration,  we  should  hardly  expect  to 


CHIKKSr-:    SOC/AL    LIFE.  107 

find  a  man  able  to  reason  closely  and  logically  on 
]-)<)ints  of  mental  and  moral  philosophy  who  did 
not  kn(nv  that  the  earth  was  spherical,  and  who 
could  not  possibly  be  made  to  understand  that  a 
traveler  wishing  to  go  from  New  York  to  Peking 
would  be  equally  certain  of  reaching  his  destina- 
tion either  by  traveling  east  or  west.  Yet  there 
are  many  such  men  in  tlie  Cliinese  Empire.  One 
would  not  expect  to  find  an  acute  and  sagacious 
statesman  in  a  person  who  had  never  heard  of  the 
law  of  gravitation,  and  wlio  was  confident  that  an 
eclipse  was  caused  by  a  dog  in  the  heavens  endeav- 
f)ring  to  devour  either  the  sun  or  the  moon,  as  the 
case  might  be.  Yet  there  are  such.  It  seems 
strange  to  us  that  a  person  could  be  a  master  of 
style  in  composition,  and  have  a  wide  and  well- 
deserved  reputation  as  an  elegant  and  polished 
writer,  yet  be  ignorant  of  the  simplest  fundamental 
elements  of  what  to  us  constitutes  an  education. 
Yet  there  are  many  such  examples. 

The  Chinese  gentleman — he  is  always  a  literary 
graduate — is  fond  of  an  argument.  He  has  his 
own  system  of  logic,  and  reaches  his  conclusions 
on  what  may  seem  at  times  to  us  to  be  whimsical 
and  even  absurd  grounds.  He  is  acute,  quick  to 
detect  flaws  in  the  chain  of  reasoning  of  his  adver- 
sary, and  to  take  advantage  of  them.  He  always 
bows  to  an}'  quotation  from  the  writings  of  Confu- 
cius. He  sometimes,  to  his  own  satisfaction  at 
least,  turns  the  tables  upon  his  opponent,  and  makes 
his  own  interpretation  of  certain  mutually  accept- 
ed facts  settle  in  his  favor  some  hotly  contested 
principle.      It  is  from  this  peculiarity  that  argument 


lo8  THE  REAL    CHIXAMAN. 

with  him  has  a  special  interest.  It  shows  how  his 
mind  works,  and  to  what  extent  credulity  is  made 
to  take  the  place  of  broad  and  well-established  gen- 
eral principles. 

I  once  had  an  aigument  lasting  several  hours 
with  a  distinguished  Chinese  scholar  who  held  a 
high  post  under  the  government,  over  the  general 
proposition,  advanced  by  him,  that  a  fox  had  the 
power  to  turn  himself  at  will  into  a  man.  Gro- 
tesque as  this  proposition  may  appear,  we  fought 
over  it  for  the  time  mentioned,  neither  apparently 
making  headway  against  the  other,  when  suddenly 
my  friend  and  opponent  said  :  "  But  how  can  you 
deny  what  you  know  has  occurred,  as  an  actual 
fact,  here  in  Peking  ?  And  you  yourself  are  familiar 
with  all  the  circumstances  of  the  case.  A  soldier 
in  the  British  Legation  was  preparing  for  bed  one 
night  a  couple  of  years  ago,  when  he  heard  the  cry 
of  a  fox  in  the  legation  grounds.  He  dressed 
again,  took  his  rifle,  and  telling  his  wife  that  he 
was  going  to  kill  that  fox,  went  out.  Shortly  after 
she  heard  the  report  of  his  rifle,  and  fell  asleep. 
When  she  awoke  in  tlie  morning  she  was  surprised 
not  to  find  him  in  the  room.  A  few  moments  later 
two  of  his  comrades  brought  his  dead  body  into 
the  house.  He  had  been  found  in  a  clump  of 
laurel  bushes,  shot  through  the  head.  His  rifle  lay 
beside  him,  but  the  fox  weis  nowhere  to  be  seen. 
Now,  what  can  be  plainer,"  exclaimed  my  antago- 
nist most  triumphantly,  "  than  the  facts  of  this 
case  ?  Tlie  soldier  was  ciiasing  that  fox  through 
those  laurel  bushes.  He  was  gaining  on  him  ;  the 
fox  saw  that  he  was  likely  to  be  caught,  and  so,  in 


CIIIXKSE    SOCIAL    LIFE.  I09 

the  flash  of  an  eye,  he  changed  himself  into  a  man, 
snatched  his  rifle  from  the  poor  soldier,  and  shot 
him  through  the  head  with  his  own  weapon.  Then 
he  changed  himself  into  a  fox  again  and  ran  away. 
Why  do  you  need  argument  in  the  face  of  such 
facts  ?"  And  he,  smiling  and  confident,  paused 
for  my  reply.  My  only  reply  was,  and  the  only 
possible  answer,  that  I  adinitted  his  facts,  which 
indeed  were  familiar  to  every  person  in  Peking  ; 
but  I  denied  his  inferences.  The  transfcjrmation 
of  the  fox  into  human  form  and  his  subsequent 
action  were  not  facts,  but  inferences.  My  infer- 
ences were  that  the  soldier  was  crawling  upon  his 
hands  and  knees  tlirough  the  laurel  thicket  in  a 
stealthy  approach  to  the  fox,  and  that  he  was  care- 
lessly dragging  his  rifle  behind  him,  having  hold 
of  it  near  the  muzzle.  A  twig  caught  the  trigger 
and  exploded  the  piece,  the  charge  entering  his 
brain.  Thus  the  argument  ended,  neither  side  hav- 
ing won  the  other  to  his  view.  Grotesque  as  his 
ideas  upon  this  point  of  natural  history  may  ap- 
pear, this  Chinese  was  a  wise,  sagacious,  and  broad- 
minded  public  officer. 

Chinese  reception-rooms  and  libraries  are  fitted 
up  with  great  elegance,  though  not,  perhaps,  in 
accordance  with  our  ideas  of  comfort.  To  recur 
again  to  the  strict  seclusion  required  of  the  female 
portion  of  any  household,  it  should  be  noticed  that 
a  caller,  in  approaching  these  rooms,  is  expected 
to  make  his  approach  known  by  a  cough,  in  order 
to  afford  them  time  to  retire  before  he  enters.  The 
Chinese  are  very  proud  of  their  sons,  and  they  are 
allowed   to  be   present,  and  are  exhibited  with  an 


no  THE   REAL    CHIXAMAN. 

assumption  of  Indifference  and  many  formal  words 
of  disappointment  and  regret  at  tlieir  stupidity,  all 
of  which  is  only  a  barely  perceptible  veil  covering 
their  fondness  and  pride.  The  surest  way  by 
which  to  gain  a  much-desired  point  with  a  Chinese 
father  is  to  see  him,  if  possible,  in  his  own  home, 
and  there  to  admire  and  praise  his  sons. 

It  need  hardly  be  said  that  all  social  intercourse 
between  natives  and  foreigners  in  China  is  strictly 
confined  to  persons  of  the  same  sex.  This  is  un- 
fortunate, no  matter  from  what  point  it  is  viewed. 
But  no  change  is  likely  until  Oriental  views  of  pro- 
priety shall  be  so  far  relaxed  as  to  conform  in  some 
degree  to  the  practice  in  Western  lands.  And  this 
is  a  change  which  cannot  be  hastened,  and  any 
effort  to  force  it  would  have  an  effect  in  exactly  the 
opposite  direction.  At  present  the  international 
gatherings,  as  they  may  be  called,  for  social  pur- 
poses, lacking  that  which  the  grace,  wit,  and  beauty 
of  woman  alone  can  give,  are,  on  the  whole,  dreary 
festivals.  It  requires  mucli  patience  and  a  philo- 
sophic turn  of  mind  to  endure  them  ;  or  perhaps  it  is 
better  to  say  that  it  would  require  these  qualities 
were  there  not  invariably  so  large  an  element  of 
comicality  j^resent   to  enliven  the  feast. 

In  dinner-giving  in  China  between  Chinese  and 
foreigners,  the  guests  are  invariably  at  the  mercy 
of  their  hosts.  The  peculiarities  of  table  service 
are  each  so  utterly  unlike  the  other,  the  dishes 
served  are  so  strange,  and  the  whole  code  of  table 
manners  is  so  widely  diverse,  that  a  dinner  of  this 
sort,  otherwise  tedious,  becomes  entertaining  by 
reason  of  the  very  l)lunders  of  the  guests,  who  may 


CHINESE   DRAGON   (MOULDED    IN   PORCELAIN). 


CHINESE    SOCIAL   LIFE.  113 

be  past-masters  in  the  art  of  elegant  dining  upon 
their  own  ground,  but  become  blundering  school- 
boys with  strange  food  strangely  cooked  and  to  be 
eaten  with  strange  utensils.  If  an  American  chases 
a  grain  of  rice  all  around  the  circumference  of  his 
plate  with  a  pair  of  chop-sticks  when  he  is  a  guest 
at  a  Chinese  dinner,  he  has  his  revenge  when,  at 
his  own  table,  he  watches  his  former  host,  after 
numerous  struggles  with  a  knife  and  fork,  gravely 
abandon  them  and  make  free  use  of  nature's  uten- 
sils— his  lingers. 

In  entertaining  strangers  from  strange  lands,  one 
is  often  amused  and  also  instructed.  It  was  once 
my  fortune  to  show  civilities  to  a  distinguished 
Corean,  a  member  of  the  Cabinet,  who  came  to 
Peking  at  the  head  of  the  annual  embassy  to  the 
Emperor  of  China.  lie  was  a  man  of  dignified 
and  refined  manners  ;  his  face  showed  acuteness 
and  ability,  and  he  was  greatly  esteemed  for  his 
high  scholarship  and  literary  ability.  Yet  the 
photographic  camera  and  the  photographs  of  him- 
self taken  that  winter  were  the  first  articles  of  the 
sort  he  had  ever  seen.  A  kerosene  lamp  was  an 
utter  novelty  to  him,  and  he  evidently  disbelieved 
the  statement  that  the  oil  burned  in  it  flowed  from 
the  ground.  He  had  never  seen,  much  less  set 
foot  within,  a  foreign  residence,  and  all  its  varied 
arrangements  and  conveniences  were  of  the  utmost 
interest  to  him.  He  was  startled  out  of  his  usual 
dignified  bearing  when  he  seated  himself  in  an 
upholstered  spring-bottomed  chair.  At  a  dinner 
which  I  gave  to  him  and  his  colleague,  it  was  almost 
pathetic   to   notice   how  carefully  the  two  Corean 


114  THE   REAL    CirEXAMAY. 

gentlemen  watched  the  actions  of  others  at  the 
table,  and  followed  the  example  they  thus  found  in 
the  use  of  table  implements,  and  the  mode  of  eat- 
ing food  with  which  they  were  wholly  unfamiliar. 
But  in  the  course  of  the  dinner  they  gave  their 
host  an  illustration  of  Corean  table  manners  which 
was  amusing  at  the  outset,  and  by  its  ultimate  con- 
sequences quite  upset  his  gravity.  Each  Corean 
brought  his  body-servant  to  the  dinner,  and  each 
servant  placed  himself  behind  his  master's  chair. 
As  they  took  no  part  in  the  service  of  the  table, 
their  presence  at  first  appeared  to  be  purely  orna- 
mental, or  a  sort  of  necessary  exponent  of  the  rank 
and  dignity  of  their  masters.  It  soon  became  evi- 
dent, however,  that  there  were  certain  emoluments 
attached  to  their  position  ;  for  when  the  master 
of  either  had  eaten  as  much  of  any  course  as  he 
cared  for,  he  would  pass  what  remained  on  his 
plate,  or  so  much  as  he  could  gather  in  his  fingers, 
over  his  shoulder  to  his  servant,  who  would  eat  it. 
Thus  when,  for  example,  chicken  cutlets  were 
served,  the  master  would  pass  the  bone,  with  some 
remnants  of  flesh  upon  it,  to  his  man,  who  would 
gnaw  it  clean,  and  gravely  drop  the  bone  upon  the 
carpet. 

This  was  amusing,  though  not  specially  benefi- 
cial to  my  carpet.  However,  my  revenge  came 
later,  when,  in  an  unlucky  moment.  His  Excellency 
Chin  Hong  Chi  handed  to  his  servant  the  butt 
of  a  particularly  large  stem  of  French  asparagus. 
The  master  had  dealt  with  it  as  he  had  seen  other 
gentlemen  deal  willi  theirs,  and  the  result  was 
favorable.      The  servant  was  not  so  fortunate.      His 


CHINESE    SOCIAL    LIFE. 


"5 


heroic  efforts  to  chew  and  swallow  the  strange  arti- 
cle of  food  made  him  black  in  the  face,  quite  upset 
the  gravity  of  the  host,  and  made  him  guilty  of 
a  grave  breach  of  Oriental  etiquette.  And  the 
wretched  valet  probably  left  the  feast  disgusted  at 
the  bad  taste  of  foreigners,  who  would  serve  boiled 
corn-stalks  with  melted  butter  upon  their  tables, 
and  amazed  at  the  strength  of  foreign  jaws  and  the 
sharpness  of  foreign  teeth,  which  could  cope  with 
a  vegetable  so  hopelessly  tough. 


CHAPTER   VI. 


CHINESE     RELIGIONS 


It  is  difficult  to  understand  how 
Confucius  has  come  to  be  regarded  as 
the  founder  of  a  system  of  religious 
belief.  He  is  so  regarded  among 
many  foreigners,  and  even  by  some 
writers  who  should  be  better  inform- 
ed. He  wrote  little  or  nothing  upon 
what  may  be  termed  religious  topics  further  than 
to  endorse  and  commend  certain  rites  which  had 
been  practiced  commonly  among  the  people  for 
centuries  before  he  was  born.  He  exhorted  his 
followers  to  the  orderly  observance  of  these  rites, 
but  went  no  further.  Though  he  believed  himself 
commissioned  to  restore  the  doctrines  and  usages 
of  the  ancient  kings — and  he  claimed  no  higher  mis- 
sion than  this — he  professed  to  know  little  or  noth- 
ing about  the  higher  powers,  and  never  taught  that 
man  had  a  duty  to  a  power  higher  than  the  head 
of  his  family  or  of  the  State.  When  he  was  once 
questioned  about  divinities,  he  said  that  he  did  not 
understand  much  about  the  gods,  and  believed 
that  the  duty  of  man  lay  rather  in  fulfilling  his 
obligations  to  his  relatives  and  society,  than  in  the 
worship  of  unknown  spirits.     On  another  occasion, 


CHINESE   RELIGIONS.  II7 

being  (luestioned  regarding  sacrifice  to  spirits,  he 
said  :  "  Not  knowing  life,  how  can  we  know 
death  ?" 

Confucius  was  a  moral  phihjsoplier,  not  a  re- 
ligious leader.  He  was  a  sage,  not  a  devotee.  He 
elaborated  a  system  of  ctliics  which  has  stood  the 
test  of  the  centuries,  and  has  liad  much  to  do  with 
the  conservation  of  the  Chinese  nation.  But  it  may 
well  be  doubted  whether  he  felt  any  serious  personal 
interest  in  the  religious  observances  which  he  coun- 
tenanced. If  so,  his  interest  lay  rather  in  their 
antiquity  than  in  any  faith  in  their  efticacy.  The 
whole  burden  of  his  teachings  was  in  behalf  of 
moderation,  order,  and  what  may  be  termed  the 
lower  grades  of  virtue.  He  never  got  beyond  the 
negative  form  of  the  golden  rule  ;  and  it  is  ex- 
tremely probable  that  he  intended  not  so  much  to 
advise  the  practice  of  any  religious  rites  as  that, 
if  practiced,  it  should  be  in  a  decorous  and  digni- 
fied manner. 

Two  and  a  half  centuries  had  passed  after  his 
death  before  the  Chinese  came  to  recognize  his 
wisdom  in  any  practical  way.  Confucius  was  born 
B.C.  551,  and  died  b.c.  479.  Yet,  so  far  as  the  his- 
torical records  show,  Kao  Tsu,  the  first  emperor 
of  the  Han  dynasty,  was  the  first  to  show  special 
reverence  and  regard  for  the  sage  by  offering  sac- 
rifice at  his  tomb,  about  r..c.  200.  And  it  was  not 
until  the  first  year  of  the  Christian  era  that  a 
temple  was  erected  to  his  memory  by  imperial  com- 
mand. Such  places  of  worship  and  sacrifice  must 
now  be  numbered  by  thousands.  His  menn)ry  is 
veneriited   by  every  Chinese,  and   liis  wonl   is   law 


ii8  THE   REAL    CHINAMAN. 

throughout  the  empire.  It  is  astonishing  how 
glibly  he  is  quoted  by  prince  and  pauper,  whether 
in  the  discussion  of  some  grave  international  ques- 
tion or  as  an  incentive  to  almsgiving.  His  word 
settles  street  wrangles  and  determines  the  policy 
of  the  State.  He  is  sometimes  quoted  under  cir- 
cumstances that  render  any  reference  to  him  gro- 
tesque and  amusing,  and  the  phrase  quoted  may 
not  have  the  faintest  apparent  bearing  upon  the 
question  at  issue,  but  it  has  weight.  He  is  the 
great  arbitrator,  authority,  and  peacemaker  of  the 
empire. 

The  system  of  so-called  religion  to  which  his 
name  has  been  given  was  evolved  by  his  disciples 
and  successors  from  a  few  obscure  phrases  in  his 
writings.  It  is  pure  materialism,  making  all  things 
to  have  originated  from  the  "  first  element,"  the 
primary  microbe.  This,  operating  upon  itself,  pro- 
duced the  dual  powers  of  nature,  the  male  and 
female  elements,  and  from  these,  b)'  a  process  of 
evolution,  all  existent  forms  have  sprung.  With 
reference  to  any  creative  agency,  any  God,  or  any 
divinities  or  spirits,  one  of  his  most  celebrated 
commentators  said  :  "  Sufficient  knowledge  was 
not  possessed  to  say  positively  that  they  existed, 
and  he  saw  no  difficulty  in  omitting  the  subject 
altogether."  He  has  nothing  to  say  concerning 
the  immortality  of  the  soul  or  future  rewards  and 
punishments.  There  is  little  to  interest  an  intelli- 
gent student  of  religious  systems  in  these  elabora- 
tions of  the  supposed  Confucian  idea,  or  to  reward 
him  for  his  labor.  They  are,  in  the  main,  confused 
and  meaningless  repetitions  of  words  whose  thought 


CH IXF.sk    KELIGIOXS.  119 

is  either  uncertain  or  absent.  And  it  must  be 
borne  in  mind  that  tliey  do  not  represent  what  he 
said — for  he  said  little  or  notliing— but  the  more  or 
less  fanciful  conjectures  of  his  followers,  some  of 
whom  lived  many  hundreds  of  years  after  him,  as 
to  what  he  probably  believed. 

What  is  known  as  the  religion  of  Confucius 
among  foreigners  is  called,  by  Chinese,  by  a  term 
which  may  be  translated  as  meaning  the  doctrine 
of  philosophers.  The  idea  is  essentially  that  con- 
veyed by  the  name  "  Illuminati,"  applied  to  classes 
of  persons  at  different  times  in  Europe.  The 
rites  prescribed  by  it  are  the  worship  of  heaven  and 
earth  and  the  worship  of  ancestors.  Essential, 
though  less  important,  is  the  worship  of  the  sun 
and  moon.  To  these  has  been  added,  in  compara- 
tively modern  times,  the  worship  of  Confucius. 
The  practice  of  the  last-named  rite  is  confined  to 
officials,  actual  or  expectant,  literary  graduates,  and 
students.  All  members  of  these  classes  are  re- 
quired to  do  homage  at  his  shrine.  The  worship 
of  heaven  and  earth  is  practiced  by  all  classes  and 
both  sexes.  It  is  an  essential  part  of  the  wedding 
ceremonies  and  other  equally  important  events. 

The  most  elaborate  and  interesting  of  all  re- 
ligious structures  in  China  is  the  Temple  of  Heaven, 
at  Peking.  It  has  two  high  altars,  one  covered 
and  the  other  open.  The  most  gorgeous  and  im- 
pressive ceremonial  in  the  empire  is  that  which 
takes  place  when  the  Emperor,  as  son  and  sole 
high-priest  of  Heaven,  goes  there  twice  each  year 
to  worship.  In  this  service  he  has  neither  assistant 
nor  substitute.    He  prepares  himself  for  this  solemn 


120  THE  REAL    CHINAMAN. 

duty  by  a  period  of  retirement  and  fasting  in  a  hall 
within  the  enclosure  specially  devoted  to  that  pur- 
pose. Without  going  into  the  details  of  the  rite, 
it  may  be  said,  in  passing,  that  it  bears  a  most 
striking  resemblance,  both  in  its  general  features 
and  detail,  to  the  Mosaic  ritual  as  found  in  the 
Bible.  One  feature,  however,  is  peculiar.  Ranged 
in  a  circle  about  each  altar  are  large  iron  crates, 
shaped  like  enormous  baskets.  In  these  are  de- 
posited, at  the  time  of  the  winter  sacrifice,  slips  of 
paper,  each  bearing  the  name,  crime,  and  other  de- 
tails of  some  Chinese  offender  whose  life  has  been 
taken  during  the  preceding  year  for  offense  against 
the  laws.  In  this  way  the  Emperor  makes  report 
to  Heaven  of  the  administration  of  affairs,  so  far  as 
it  has  involved  the  death  penalty. 

One  peculiar  feature  of  the  worship  at  this  im- 
perial structure  is  worthy  of  notice.  Though  men 
and  women  alike  throughout  the  empire  worship 
heaven  and  earth,  no  place  is  allowed  to  females  in 
the  grand  pageant  and  solemn  ceremonial  referred 
to  above.  Not  only  are  they  excluded  from  all 
participation  in  it,  but  their  presence  on  any  part 
of  the  grounds  at  any  time  is  held  to  be  a  pollution 
of  the  sanctuary.  If  one  of  the  native  guards  of 
the  temple  should  even  carry  a  female  infant  in  liis 
arms  into  the  beautiful  park  which  surrounds  and 
forms  the  outer  enclosure  to  it,  he  would  be  most 
severely  punished. 

When  General  Grant,  in  the  spring  of  1879,  visit- 
ed Peking,  this  temple,  for  the  first  time  in  its  his- 
tory, was  ofTicially  thrown  open.  To  a  Chinese 
mind    it   was  one  of  the   highest  honors  that  could 


I 


CIIINKSE   KEIJGIONS.  I2I 

be  paid  to  hiin.  Some  fori'i<^ii  ladies,  having 
learned  in  advance  that  the  gates  were  thus  to  be 
opened  for  this  distinguished  American,  took  ad- 
vantage of  the  fact  and  made  their  w^ay  into  the 
enclosure,  riglitly  conjecturing  that  the  timid  and 
ignorant  guards  would  imagine  that  they  belonged 
to  the  General's  party,  and  hence  would  not  dare 
to  bar  the  way.  As  this  courtesy  had  been  extend- 
ed to  my  guests  through  me,  I  felt  bound  to  take 
an  early  opportunity  to  explain  the  facts  to  Prince 
Kung,  and  to  express  my  regret  at  the  intrusion. 
He  replied  at  once  :  "  I  know  all  about  it.  But 
don't  mention  the  subject,  even  in  a  whisper.  If  it 
came  to  be  generally  known,  there  would  be  serious 
trouble." 

The  respect,  amounting  to  reverence,  which  the 
Chinese  feel  for  education  and  literature,  shows 
itself  in  a  peculiar  adjunct  to  the  worship  of  Con- 
fucius. In  every  city  and  large  town  in  the  empire 
the  graduates  of  the  literary  examinations  are  or- 
ganized in  a  guild  or  association.  They  place 
boxes  at  street  corners,  in  shops,  and  other  fre- 
quented places,  upon  which  is  painted  the  advice  : 
"Have  respect  for  the  written  character."  In 
these  boxes  all  persons  are  requested  to  carefully 
deposit  any  scraps  or  pieces  of  waste  paper  which 
contain  printed  or  written  matter.  They  also 
sometimes  employ  men,  provided  with  a  basket  and 
a  bamboo  rod  with  a  sharp  nail  at  the  end,  to  patrol 
the  streets  and  gather  up  any  such  paper  that  may 
have  been  dropped.  The  contents  of  these  various 
receptacles  are  gathered  together,  and  at  stated 
intervals   the   members   of    the    guild    march    with 


THE   REAL    CIIIXAMAN. 


them  in  solemn  procession,  preceded  by  a  band  of 
music,  to  the  Temple  of  Confucius.  An  essential 
feature  of  the  courtyard  of  the  temple  is  a  small 
shrine   or   oven,  an    illustration    of   that  in   Peking 


OVKN    FOR    BURNING    PAPER,    IN    CONFUCIAN    TEMPLE,    PEKING. 


being  given  herewith.  The  papers  are  deposited 
in  this  shiine  and  l)urned,  while  these  devotees  of 
literature  prostrate  themselves  in  worship.  Per- 
haps no  one  thing  gives  tlic  educated  Chinese  such 


CI/IXESE  REIJGIOXS.  123 

a  low  opinion  of  foreign  culture  iind  refinement  as 
the  careless,  indifferent,  and,  in  their  eyes,  disre- 
spectful way  in  which  we  treat  printed  or  written 
paper.  They  cannot  understand  how  any  person 
of  genuine  education  would  show  such  lack  of  re- 
gard for  the  source  of  all  his  learning. 

The  worship  of  ancestors  is  literally  universal  in 
China.  There  are  no  exceptions  to  the  practice 
except  in  case  of  Christianized  Chinese,  and  on  no 
other  ground  do  these  receive  so  much  criticism 
and  abuse,  amounting  in  individual  cases  to  perse- 
cution, as  for  their  neglect  of  this  solemn  duty. 
So  far  as  can  be  discovered,  the  worship  is  as  old 
as  the  race.  It  is  the  most  deeply  rooted  of  all 
forms  of  religion  in  the  very  fibre  of  the  Chinese 
character,  and,  beyond  a  question,  it  will  be  the 
last  of  all  forms  of  false  faith  to  die  out  from 
among  them. 

Whatever  may  be  the  theoretical  idea  in  the  wor- 
ship of  ancestors — and  there  has  been  much  dispute 
upon  the  question — the  practical  belief  under  which 
it  holds  the  hundred  of  millions  of  Chinese  to  ob- 
servance of  the  rite  is  substantially  as  follows  :  The 
masses  believe  that  the  spirits  of  the  departed  re- 
main near  the  home  occupied  by  them  during  life, 
and  the  grave  in  which  the  body  rests.  They  be- 
lieve that  these  spirits  are  powerful  to  work  good 
or  ill  to  their  descendants,  and  that  hence  they 
must  be  propitiated  by  offerings.  The  more  igno- 
rant classes,  at  least,  believe  that  they  are  actually 
supported,  fed  by  the  sacrifices  placed  before  their 
tombs,  and  that  the  sham  money  burned  in  the 
ceremony  is   by   some   unexplained   process   trans- 


124  THE   REAL    CHINAMAN. 

muted  into  coin  current  in  the  world  of  spirits,  and 
there  serves  to  pay  their  expenses.  Gross  ideas 
these,  beyond  a  doubt  ;  but  they  exist  and  form  an 
animating  motive  of  the  worship  of  ancestors  as 
practiced  by  a  large  portion  of  the  people  of  China. 
There  may  be,  probably  is,  an  element  of  filial  de- 
votion in  the  service.  But  there  is  also  a  large  ele- 
ment of  fear,  an  anxiety  to  stand  well  with  the 
gods,  and  to  secure  for  themselves  the  favoring 
influences  which  their  departed  relatives  are  be- 
lieved to  possess. 

This  worship  makes  clear  one  point  of  Chinese 
belief  which  otherwise  might  be  in  doubt.  It 
shows  conclusively  that  they  believe  in  the  con- 
tinued existence  of  the  soul  after  death.  And  it 
makes  plain  the  logic  of  their  conduct  in  certain 
other  matters,  showing  that  the  course  so  uniform- 
ly taken  by  them  is  more  of  a  necessity  than  any 
mere  choice.  It  explains  why  there  are  no  bache- 
lors in  China.  Every  man  must  marry  and  rear 
sons  to  perform  this  rite,  essential  to  his  eternal 
happiness,  at  his  grave.  He  must  have  sons,  not 
daughters,  for  a  double  reason.  Wliile  all  mem- 
bers of  a  given  family  participate  in  the  ceremo- 
nies, tlie  active  part  of  the  service  must  be  rendered 
by  sons.  And,  further,  a  daughter,  when  married, 
ceases  to  concern  herself  in  the  affairs  of  her  own 
parents,  but  is  absorbed  in  the  family  of  her  hus- 
band. This  service  explains  why  the  Chinese  go 
and  come  between  foreign  lands  and  China,  or  re- 
mote i)arts  of  their  own  country,  but  practically 
never  colonize,  and  why  such  intense  stress  is  laid 
upon    the    return    of   a   dead   l)0(ly  from   no  matter 


CHINESE   RELIC  IONS.  125 

how  great  a  distance  for  burial  in  the  ancestral 
ground.  It  is  there  that  this  ceremony  is  observed, 
and  there  the  body  must  be  to  receive  tlie  l)enefit 
of  it.  If  buried  elsewhere,  the  soul  of  the  depart- 
ed is  doomed  to  wander  in  cold,  hunger,  and  deso- 
lation. 

The  ancestral  tablet,  as  it  is  called,  is  found  in 
every  Chinese  home,  and,  theoretically  at  least, 
obeisance  before  it  is  made  daily.  This  tablet  is  a 
strip  of  wood  set  into  a  wooden  base,  painted  gen- 
erally red,  and  having  an  inscription  in  gilt  upon 
it  to  show  its  purpose.  It  is  generally  enclosed  in 
a  small  shrine  more  or  less  carved  and  ornamented. 
But  the  formal  sacrifice  occurs  semi-annually  at  the 
tombs.  It  is  elaborate  and  expensive  according  to 
the  means  of  the  celebrants.  The  grave  mounds 
are  carefully  cleared  of  grass  and  weeds,  and  round- 
ed into  shape.  A  table  is  spread  before  the  en- 
trance to  the  place  of  burial,  and  upon  it  the  offer- 
ings are  placed.  These  ordinarily  consist  of  baked 
meats  of  different  kinds,  pigs  and  ducks  being  most 
common,  rice,  cakes,  wine,  and  strips  of  silk,  with 
which  the  spirits  are  supposed  to  clothe  themselves. 
Firecrackers,  those  universal  attendants  of  all  Chi- 
nese forms  of  ceremony,  are  discharged  in  large 
quantities,  and  large  sums  of  imitation  money  are 
burned,  thus  being  transmitted  and  transmuted 
for  spiritual  use  by  fire. 

The  Chinese  are  nothing  if  not  economical.  This 
liberal  display  of  food  and  drink  \'~, presented  \.o  an- 
cestors, but,  after  they  have  gained  whatever  sus- 
tenance may  be  available  in  it  for  tliem,  it  is  eaten 
and   drank^  down    to    the    last  crumb  and  drop,  by 


126  THE   REAL    CHIXAMAN: 

the  surviving  members  of  the  family.  Thus  the 
day  is  made  a  holiday  in  the  true  sense  of  the  word. 
Instances  have  been  known  in  which  families  too 
poor  or  too  economical  to  purchase  the  materials 
for  such  a  feast  have  hired  them  for  the  day,  to  be 
returned  in  good  order  at  night.  Others  buy  imi- 
tation roast  pigs  and  ducks  made  of  coarse  paste- 
board and  painted.  They  appear  to  believe  that 
disembodied  spirits  are  more  easil}^  imposed  upon 
than  are  the  living. 

In  order  to  secure  an  intelligent  conception  of 
the  place  which  the  three  great  religions  of  China 
occupy  in  the  minds  of  the  people,  it  is  best  to  ac- 
cept the  fact  that  the  entire  mass  of  the  population 
— always  excepting  Christian  converts — are  believ- 
ers in  Confucianism.  That  is  to  say,  giving  that 
name  to  a  system  of  religious  practice  which  he  did 
not  originate,  and  of  which  he  really  had  very  lit- 
tle to  say,  and  understanding  its  essential  features 
to  consist  of  the  worship  of  heaven  and  earth  and 
of  ancestors,  with  the  worship  of  the  sage  himself 
added  later  for  scholars  only,  then  every  true  Chi- 
nese is  a  Confucianist.  That  is  the  one  original, 
universal,  indigenous  religion  of  China.  The  other 
two,  yet  to  be  described,  are,  so  to  speak,  supple- 
mentary and  subordinate.  It  will  do  much  to  free 
the  mind  of  the  reader  from  confusion  if  this  fact 
is  kept  in  view. 

There  has  been  much  discussion  whether  Tao- 
ism was  a  native  or  an  imported  religion,  with  the 
balance  of  opinion  inclining  toward  the  latter.  Its 
founder  was  a  Chinese  who  traveled  in  other  parts 
of  Asia,  and  all  his  teachings  beiir  the  ear-marks  of 


CnrXESE  REIJCIOXS.  127 

Brahminisin.  He  was  contemporaneous  with  Con- 
fucius, tliougli  a  few  years  his  senior,  and  met  him 
at  least  once.  Tlie  name  Taoism,  or  the  ism  of 
Tao,  gives  more  than  a  liint  as  to  the  nature  of 
that  belief.  Tao  is  a  Chinese  word,  whose  first 
meaning  is  "  road"  or  "  way,"  and  the  professed 
object  of  the  founder  of  the  system  was  to  explain 
the  relations  existing  between  the  universe  of  mind 
and  matter  and  this  Tao.  A  sentence  or  two  from 
his  writings  will  show,  amusingly  perhaps,  how 
easily  he  set  about  his  task.  And  they  will  also 
most  likely  give  the  reader  all  that  he  cares  to 
know  in  detail  of  this  form  of  belief.  Here  they 
are  :  ' '  All  material  visible  forms  are  only  emanations 
of  Tao  or  reason  ;  this  formed  all  beings."  Again: 
"  Reason  has  produced  one,  one  produced  two, 
two  produced  three,  and  three  made  all  things. 
All  beings  repose  on  the  feminine  principle,  and 
they  embrace,  envelop  the  male  principle  ;  a 
fecundating  breath  keeps  up  their  liarmony." 
His  theories  remind  the  student  of  nothing  so 
much  as  of  a  dog  chasing  its  tail.  And  they  are 
nearly  as  devoid  of  sense. 

Theoretically  Taoism,  at  least  in  its  original 
form,  did  not  favor  idolatry — that  is,  the  worship 
of  visible  objects  ;  but  now  it  has  all  imaginable 
forms  of  idols,  and  may  almost  be  said  to  make 
new  ones  to  order.  Originally  it  taught  asceti- 
cism, or  at  least  that  the  study  of  pure  reason  and 
the  mortification  of  bodily  desires  formed  the  sole 
duty  of  man.  Ijut  all  this  has  long  since  been 
changed.  Taoist  priests  are  the  jugglers,  astrolo- 
gers, fortune-tellers,  and  general   mountebanks  of 


128  THE   REAL    CI/EVAAfAN'. 

China.  The  fountain  of  eternal  youth,  the  elixir 
of  life,  and  the  plant  of  immortality  which  grows 
in  some  fabulous  Eastern  isles — these  are  the  stock 
phrases  upon  their  lips,  and  ideas  springing  out  of 
them  form  the  burden  of  their  teaching.  They 
have  also  adopted  (if  they  did  not  originate)  that 
old  European  humbug,  and  profess  to  be  able  to 
transmute  base  metals  into  gold. 

It  is,  to  say  the  least,  significant  that  the  official 
establishment  of  Confucius  as  an  object  of  national 
worship,  the  birth  of  Christ,  and  the  introduction 
of  Buddhism  into  the  Chinese  Empire  should  have 
occurred  at  about  the  same  time.  There  is  a 
legend  among  the  Chinese  to  the  effect  that,  about 
the  time  of  the  birth  of  the  Saviour,  the  reigning 
emperor  was  several  times  warned  in  a  dream  that 
a  wise  man  would  shortly  be  born  in  the  West,  and 
he  was  advised  to  send  an  embassy  to  invite  him  to 
China.  Another  legend  recites  that  the  emperor 
dispatched  an  embassy  because  of  a  remarkable 
expression  of  Confucius  five  hundred  years  earlier, 
to  the  effect  that  "  the  people  of  the  West  have 
a  sage."  This  much  is  certain  :  an  embassy  was 
sent  to  the  West  about  the  time  of  the  birth  of 
Christ  to  seek  for  a  new  faith.  It  wandered  into 
India,  and  the  result  was  the  introduction  of  Bud- 
dhism into  the  empire. 

Buddhist  temples  are  a  feature  of  every  land- 
scape in  China.  The}^  are  to  be  found  by  scores  in 
the  larger  cities,  by  tens  in  the  smaller,  and  by 
twos  and  threes  in  every  market  town  and  village, 
while  no  hamlet  is  so  insignificant  as  to  be  without 
its  mud  god,  not  unfrcquently  in   a  most  shocking 


CHWESE  liEL/G/O.VS.  129 

condition  of  disrepair.  In  general,  they  are  built, 
rc[)aire(l,  and  maintained  by  private  subscription, 
in  which  public  sentiment  forces  eacli  mi-mber  of 
the  community  to  bear  his  share.  Some,  however, 
are  supported  by  annual  grants  from  the  govern- 
ment, or  by  endowment.  Those  receiving  aid 
from  the  State  are  distinguishable  by  yellow-tiled 
roofs — yellow  being  the  imperial  color,  forbidden 
to  the  people. 

In  addition  to  what  may  be  called  formal  temples 
for  the  worship  of  Buddha,  there  are  an  innumer- 
able number  of  wayside  shrines  to  be  met  with  all 
over  the  country,  devoted  either  to  the  worship  of 
that  deity  in  person  or  to  some  subordinate  inferior 
god  in  the  Buddhist  pantheon.  Once,  when  trav- 
eling in  the  province  of  Shansi,  and  about  half-a- 
dozen  miles  distant  from  a  sacred  Buddhist  spot 
called  Wu  Tai  Shan,  I  came  across  such  a  wretched 
little  shrine,  built  of  mud,  about  the  size  of  a  dog- 
kennel,  which  was  dedicated  to  "  The  one  thou- 
sand two  hundred  and  forty-nine  unnamed  local 
divinities  of  the  earth,  air,  and  sea."  Here  was  a 
veritaMe  omnium  gatherum  of  a  shrine.  The  big 
gods  have  each  his  own  place  of  worship  ;  but  it 
had  occurred  to  some  devout-minded  Chinese  that 
there  might  be  a  considerable  number  of  little  dei- 
ties left  unnoticed  yet  deserving  of  attention.  He 
had  numbered  them  all,  and  consecrated  this  mud 
shrine  to  their  service.  It  was  thoughtful,  but 
grotesque. 

While  the  first  and  fifteentli  of  the  moon  and  cer- 
tain feast  days  are  more  particularly  days  of  wor- 
ship, the  temples  are  always  open,  day  and  night, 


130  THE   REAL    CHIXAMAN. 

throughout  the  year  ;  a  priest  is  always  in  attend- 
ance to  conduct  the  worship,  and  a  wick  floating  in 
a  cup  of  oil  furnishes  a  faint  but  perpetual  light 
before  the  images.  The  worship  is  always  indi- 
vidual, there  being  no  such  thing  as  joint  or  con- 
gregational service  known.  The  ordinary  form  is 
very  simple,  and  occupies  but  a  moment.  A  wor- 
shiper comes  in,  buys  for  a  few  cash  several  sticks 
of  incense  from  the  priest,  who  lights  them  for  him 
at  the  sacred  flame.  These  aie  handed  to  the  wor- 
shiper, who  places  them  in  a  bronze  incense-burner 
upon  a  table  in  front  of  the  image  of  Buddha.  He 
then  prostrates  himself  upon  a  rug  before  the  idol 
three  times,  each  time  knocking  his  head  three 
times  upon  the  floor,  the  priest  meanwhile  beating 
a  huge  drum  or  bell  to  attract  the  attention  of 
Buddha.  This  done,  the  worshiper  rises  and  goes 
about  his  business.  This  is  the  usual  form  of  wor- 
ship in  all  Chinese  temples.  It  is  simple,  inexpen- 
sive, and  interferes  with  neither  business  nor  pleas- 
ure. In  larger  temples,  to  which  a  number  of 
priests  and  neophytes  are  attached,  they  are  re- 
quired to  be  "  on  watch,"  much  like  sailors  on  ship- 
board, and  at  regular  periods,  night  and  day,  per- 
form this  ceremony.  The  priests  are,  as  a  class, 
notorious  for  their  ignorance  and  vicious  habits. 
They  are  not  allowed  to  marry,  and  probably  not 
one  tenth  of  them  can  read  or  write.  They  learn 
the  exceedingly  limited  vocabulary  of  the  ritual, 
which  consists  of  barely  more  than  one  or  two 
Sanscrit  words,  by  having  it  repeated  to  them. 

There  is  a  regularly  graded   Buddliist  hierarchy, 
culminating  with  one  wlio  mav  be  termed,  for  lack 


CHINESE  RELIGIONS.  131 

of  a  better  name,  an  archbishop.  He  is  supposed 
to  be  subordinate  only  to  the  Grand  Llama  in 
Thibet  in  ecclesiastical  affairs.  I  exchanged  calls 
with  such  an  archbishop  at  Wu  Tai  Shan,  a  sacred 
resort  already  mentioned.  He  was  a  very  pleasant- 
faced,  mild-mannered  old  gentleman,  aged  about 
seventy,  not  a  Chinese,  but  a  Thibetan.  In  conse- 
quence he  spoke  poor  Chinese,  but  we  managed  to 
get  on  very  well  in  our  conversation.  He  set  out 
some  very  choice  tea  to  drink,  to  which  he  added 
cream  (which  Chinese  never  use)  and  salt.  It  was 
not  at  all  unpalatable.  The  old  man  was  some- 
thing of  a  gossip,  manifested  the  utmost  curiosity 
and  the  densest  ignorance  about  all  foreign  mat- 
ters, and  in  the  course  of  a  long  conversation  be- 
came very  frank  and  confidential.  He  informed 
me  that  archbishops  were  chosen  by  ballot  by  the 
bishops,  from  among  their  own  number,  for  a  term 
of  six  years.  He  had  been  elected  three  terms,  and 
a  new  election  would  occur  in  a  few  months.  He 
added  naively  that  he  doubted  whether  he  would 
seek  another  term.  He  was  rather  tired  of  the 
monotony  of  the  post,  was  getting  on  in  years, 
and  besides  //  cost  too  much  to  secure  the  election. 
The  honor,  pay,  and  perquisites  were  not  worth  it. 
In  addition  to  the  regular  hierarchy  of  the  priest- 
hood, there  is  an  anomalous  and  comparatively 
modern  creation  known  as  a  "  living  Buddha." 
He  is  supposed  to  be  an  incarnation  of  the  original 
Buddha,  has  no  part  in  the  councils  of  the  organi- 
zation, is  of  course  sacred,  and  his  most  unfortu- 
nate lot  in  life  is  to  sit  upon  a  lotus-leaf  throne  and 
be  worshiped.     Theoretically    he    never   dies,    but 


132  THE  REAL    CHINAMAN: 

goes  away,  and  then  is  sought  for  and  always  found 
reincarnated  in  some  young  boy.  With  a  certain 
amount  of  inconsistency,  while  there  was  but  one 
original  Buddha,  there  are  four  modern  incarna- 
tions of  him  :  one  at  Lhassa  and  three  at  three  dif- 
ferent and  rival  sacred  centres  of  the  faith  in  China. 

Buddhism  has  manifestly  taken  on  certain  addi- 
tional ideas,  with  their  corresponding  phrases  and 
terms,  by  being  brought  into  contact  and  contrast 
with  Christianity.  Certain  of  the  most  important 
expressions  in  Buddhism  as  taught  to-day  are  not 
to  be  found  in  the  original  theories  of  existence 
and  of  rewards  and  punishment.  Early  Buddhism 
says  nothing  about  heaven  or  hell,  a  personal  devil, 
or  a  goddess  of  mercy.  Such  a  figure  as  that  re- 
produced, and  which  represents  a  Buddhist  priest 
treading  Satan  under  his  feet,  would  not  have  been 
understood  by  primitive  Buddhists,  nor  would 
Quan  Yin,  the  Buddhist  Madonna,  of  whom  an 
illustration  is  also  furnished. 

It  strikes  a  Western  man  oddly,  as  he  passes 
along  the  streets  of  a  Chinese  city,  to  see  upon  the 
walls,  which  are  as  thickly  plastered  with  adver- 
tisements of  all  sorts  as  those  of  any  city  in  this 
land,  unless,  indeed,  the  Chinese  warning,  "  I'ost  no 
Bills,"  has  been  put  up — it  strikes  him  oddly  to 
read,  among  flaming  notices  of  quack  remedies, 
the  words,  "  Ask  and  ye  shall  receive,"  or,  "  To 
him  who  asks  in  faith  shall  be  given."  At  first  he 
imagines  that  the  American  crank  has  a  Chinese 
l)r()ther  who  is  imitating  him  in  placarding  texts  of 
Scripture  in  unseemly  places.  Such,  however,  is 
not  the   fact.     These  are  simply   headlines  to  ad- 


BUDDHIST   PRIEST   TRAMPLING    SATAN    UNDER   FOOT. 


¥ 


CHIXESE   KKLIGIOXS.  1 35 

vertisements  of  Buddhist  temples,  posted  with  the 
desire  to  secure  the  prayers,  and  Jicncc  the  cash — for 
no  pay,  no  pray,  is  the  ruki — of  worshipers.  They 
are  posted  as  a  matter  of  business. 

Tlie  number  of  mendicant  or  tramp  priests  in 
Cliiiia  must  be  enormous.  They  are  encouraged 
and  fostered  ;  by  a  rule  of  the  order,  any  priest  is 
entitled  to  receive,  free  of  cost,  a  night's  lodging  and 
a  meal  at  any  temple  to  which  he  may  apply.  The 
miijority  of  them  are  professional  beggars,  and,  in 
order  to  increase  the  force  of  their  appeal,  which 
is  ordinarily  for  some  imaginary  temple  at  a  great 
distance,  adopt  artificial  deformities,  or  make  spe- 
cial effort  to  intensify  their  naturally  repulsive  ap- 
pearance. To  one  such  whom  I  met  on  the  street 
I  offered  what  was  a  considerable  sum  of  money  to 
him  for  the  finger-nails  of  his  left  hand.  He  as- 
sured me  that  they  had  not  been  cut  in  ten  years, 
and,  judging  from  appearance,  they  had  not  been 
cleaned  in  even  a  longer  period.  They  were  fully 
eiglit  inches  in  length,  curved  like  a  bird's  claws, 
and  the  thumb-nail  stretched  like  a  long  arch  over 
and  bej^ond  tlie  others,  until  it  ended  outside  the 
back  of  his  hand.  He  was  obliged  to  carry  his 
hand  palm  uppermost  and  slightly  closed  in  front 
of  his  breast.  Those  nails  would  have  made  a 
unique  curiosity,  but  the  offer  made  was  indig- 
nantly declined.  With  his  hair,  which,  contrary 
to  priestly  rule,  grew  long,  under  a  vow,  as  he  de- 
clared, and  which,  he  said,  had  not  been  dressed  in 
a  decade,  which  also  seemed  probable,  those  nails 
formed  a  valuable  stock-in-trade. 

There    is    another  class   of   priests  who  may  be 


136  THE  REAL    CHINAMAN: 

called  "  professional  money-getters."  They  are 
attached  to  no  temple,  but  their  services  are  en- 
gaged when  extensive  repairs  or  other  special 
emergencies  calling  for  money  in  unusual  sums 
arise.  I  saw  one  of  this  class  in  Peking,  through 
whose  cheeks  circular  holes  had  been  cut,  and  the 
upper  and  lower  teeth  opposite  these  openings 
knocked  out.  Through  the  path  thus  made  was 
thrust  an  iron  rod  as  large  as  a  middle  finger,  pro- 
jecting an  inch  beyond  either  cheek.  A  half  circle 
hoop  of  iron  was  loosely  fastened  to  either  end  of 
the  rod  and  passed  around  the  back  of  his  head. 
Fastened  to  this  was  an  iron  chain,  such  as  is  called 
a  log  chain,  of  sufficient  length  to  drag  on  the 
ground  for  several  feet  behind  him  as  he  passed 
along  the  street.  He  also  wore  the  beggar's  robe 
of  a  hundred  patches  ,  a  priestly  garment  made 
from  small  bits  of  cloth  of  the  utmost  possible 
variety  and  contrast  of  color.  He  was  engaged  to 
go  from  house  to  house  soliciting  contributions  for 
the  repair  of  a  well-known  temple.  He  was  a 
brazen,  bold-faced  scoundrel,  for  whom  there  was 
not  even  a  faint  call  for  sympathy.  The  rod,  chain, 
and  ragged  garment  were  his  artistically  prepared 
stock-in-trade.  He  could  even  simulate  bleeding 
at  those  circular  holes  in  his  cheeks.  He  received 
from  the  temple  priests  who  employed  him  regular 
monthly  wages,  and  a  fixed  percentage  of  all  sums 
collected. 

Another  peculiar  mode  of  raising  funds  for  tem- 
ple repairs  deserves  notice.  A  small,  box-like 
structure,  jonly  large  enough  to  contain  a  person 
standing,    is    placed    in    front    of     the    temple.      A 


GODDESS   OF   MERCY 


1 

i 


CHINESE   REI.ICIOXS.  139 

priest — and  there  is  a  class  with  whom  tliis  form  of 
begging  is  a  specialty — is  placed  in  the  box,  wliich 
is  securely  fastened.  Then  sharp-j^ointed  spikes 
are  driven  through  every  available  inch  of  space  in 
the  surface  of  the  box — driven  in  until  they  come 
into  close  contact  with  every  part  of  the  priest's 
body,  and  he  cannot  move  an  inch  in  any  direc- 
tion. Only  his  right  hand  and  forearm  are  left 
free,  in  order  that  he  may,  by  means  of  a  cord, 
strike  the  temple  bell,  and  thus  call  the  attention  of 
passers  to  liis  sad  condition.  A  price  is  then  put 
upon  each  spike,  the  sum  total,  of  course,  being 
the  amount  of  money  which  is  needed.  The  value 
of  each  spike  is  fixed  according  to  its  position  op- 
posite the  priest's  body,  those  opposite  the  eyes 
and  vital  parts  being  most  expensive.  The  theory 
of  this  comedy  is  that  passers-by,  seeing  the  piti- 
able plight  of  the  holy  priest,  will  be  anxious  to 
aid  in  releasing  him.  This  they  can  do  by  buying 
the  spikes  which  compass  him  so  closely.  A  priest 
stands  in  attendance  to  extract  the  spikes  as  they 
are  paid  for  and  deliver  them  to  the  buyers,  who 
have  thus  lasting  souvenirs  of  their  benevolence. 
Theoretically  the  imprisoned  priest  stands  in  his 
kennel  without  relief  or  interruption,  day  and 
night,  until  every  spike  has  been  withdrawn. 

Space  will  allow  of  only  a  single  incident  in  illus- 
tration of  the  self-inflicted  cruelties  and  hardships 
which  Buddhism  demands  of  its  votaries.  One 
intolerably  hot  and  dusty  afternoon  I  was  resting 
at  a  wayside  tea-house  to  the  southwest  of  Peking, 
when  I  saw  a  man  and  a  woman  approaching  and 
stirring  the    deep   dust   of   the  highway  in  a  very 


140  THE  REAL    CHIXAMAX. 

peculiar  manner.  The  man  would  take  one  long 
step  forward  from  a  certain  point,  measure  his 
length,  face  downward,  in  the  road,  then  place 
his  feet  at  the  spot  marked  in  the  dust  by  his  fore- 
head, take  another  step,  measure  his  length  again, 
and  so  proceed,  one  step  and  one  prostration,  as 
the  Chinese  call  it.  At  each  prostration  he  knocked 
his  head  three  times  in  the  dust.  The  procedure 
reminded  me  of  the  measuring  worm  of  childhood. 
In  answer  to  my  questions,  he  said  that  a  year  be- 
fore, when  his  only  son  was  very  ill,  he  had  made 
a  vow  that,  if  Buddha  would  restore  the  young 
man  to  health,  he  would  make  a  pilgrimage  to  Wu 
Tai  Shan  and  back  to  his  native  village,  making 
the  entire  journey  in  the  manner  above  described. 
The  distance  was  nearly  two  thousand  miles,  and 
he  could  measure  about  three  miles  a  day.  As  he 
was  seventy-eight  years  old,  frail  in  appearance, 
and  about  worn  out,  it  was  easy  to  see  that  he 
would  not  live  to  fulfill  his  vow.  A  callous  lump  as 
large  as  an  ^^'^  had  formed  upon  his  forehead. 
Yet  this  man  was  shocked  and  angry  at  a  sugges- 
tion that  he  should  abandon  his  useless  pilgrimage, 
and  passed  out  of  sight  measuring  the  road  with 
his  feeble  body. 

The  male  Chinese  is  much  like  his  Western 
brother  :  he  is  less  religiously  inclined  in  times  of 
prosperity  than  in  seasons  of  adversity.  When  the 
storm  arises,  then  he  runs  to  shelter.  Ilence,  ordi- 
narily women  and  children  form  the  large  majority 
of  the  devout  at  Buddhist  shrines.  Even  they 
adopt  it  as  a  supplementary  sort  of  belief,  and 
habitually  disregard  some  of  its  most  vital  tenets, 


ciiixKSE  Ki:i.n:io.ys.  141 

Thus,  for  example,  eatin|n^  animal  food  or  takinc^ 
life  in  any  form  is  strictly  forbidden  to  all  Bud- 
dhists. One  of  the  tests  of  devout  Buddhism 
among  the  common  people  is  shaped  into  the  famil- 
iar, if  somewhat  disagreeable  expression  that  a 
true  Buddhist  will  not  destroy  the  vermin  found 
on  his  own  body.  Yet  one  would  travel  more  than 
one  day's  journey  in  China  to  find  a  Buddhist  who 
would  refuse  to  eat  meat  when  offered  to  him. 
The  Chinese  common  people  refrain  from  animal 
food  not  from  principle,  but  from  poverty.  The 
same  is  true  regarding  the  proliibition  of  wine- 
drinking.  x\nd  if  we  turn  to  the  commandment 
against  lying  as  a  test,  there  is  not  a  good  Bud- 
dhist in  all  China. 

At  the  same  time,  when  trouble  comes,  it  is  aston- 
ishing how  this  form  of  belief  appears  to  reassert  a 
secret  hold  upon  the  Chinese  mind.  Men  of  really 
great  intellectual  grasp,  of  clear  and  commanding 
intellect,  degrade  themselves  to  the  most  puerile 
and  ridiculous  performances,  and  spend  large  sums 
upon  the  priests  in  order  to  gain  some  material 
advantage,  or  to  change  a  tide  of  ill-fortune  into 
good.  For  example,  a  distinguished  Chinese  states- 
man, whose  name  and  presence  are  known  in  Eu- 
rope, and  who  for  this  reason  shall  be  nameless 
here,  having  been  most  unjustly  degraded  from 
office,  and  having  in  vain  pulled  every  wire  of 
family  or  political  influence  to  secure  reinstatement, 
finally  devoted  an  entire  year  and  a  good  part  of  a 
large  fortune  to  a  tour  of  worshiji  at  each  one  of 
the    numberless    temples   and    shrines   in    and  near 


142  THE   REAL    CHIN  AM  AX. 

Peking,  approaching  and  leaving  each  by  the  "  one 
step  and  one  prostration"  just  described. 

The  Chinese  as  a  nation  have  too  much  intel- 
lectuaHty  and  practical  good  sense  to  accept  very 
seriously  the  mass  of  absurd  fanfaronade  which 
constitutes  modern  Taoism.  But  unfortunately 
Buddhism  appeals  more  directly  and  in  a  less  ab- 
surd degree  to  the  weaker  side  of  the  Oriental — his 
superstitious  side.  x\nd  it  is  because  of  this  that 
it  is  so  popular  and  so  injurious.  That  it  is  an 
awful  force,  active  in  the  debasement  and  deterio- 
ration of  the  national  character,  no  sane  man,  who 
has  seen  it  and  lived  in  the  midst  of  it,  can  doubt.  It 
can  only  be  idealized  and  beatified  in  verse  or  prose 
by  one  who  knows  nothing  about  it.  As  a  system  in 
practical  working,  it  is  a  charnel-house  of  corrup- 
tion, a  whited  sepulchre  full  of  dead  men's  bones. 

While  the  Emperor  of  China  is  in  person  tlie 
high-priest  of  Confucianism,  and  requires  that  all 
office-holders,  either  in  fact  or  prospect,  should 
conform  to  that  faith,  tlae  government  is  practically 
tolerant  of  all  forms  of  religious  belief.  In  the 
case  of  Buddhism  and  Taoism,  His  Imperial  Maj- 
esty goes  a  step  further,  and  patronizes  these  faiths. 
He  supports  a  large  number  of  their  priests  and 
temples,  and  on  rare  occasions  visits  in  state  one 
or  more  of  tlie  latter.  But  he  goes  there  as  a 
patron,  not  as  a  worshiper.  lie  kneels  and  knocks 
his  head  upon  the  ground  at  the  Temple  of  Heaven 
or  before  the  shrine  of  Confucius,  but  he  merely 
bows  before  the  image  of  Buddha  or  the  chief  of 
the  many  idols  tliat  litter  his  way  in  a  Taoist 
shrine. 


cnrx/'.sE  Ri-j.iGioxs. 


143 


And  in  the  northern  and  northwestern  provinces 
of  China  there  are  millions  of  Mohammedans,  very 
proud  of  the  fact  that  they  are  Persian  and  not 
Chinese  in  origin,  who  adhere  to  their  own  fiuth 
and  form  of  worship,  yet  iov  centuries  have  lived 
unmolested  an^.ong  the  Chinese.  There  are  twenty- 
four  Mohammedan  mosques  in  Peking  alone. 

Strangest  of  all,  in  the  centre  of  the  province  of 
Honan,  which  is  to  say,  nearly  in  the  centre  of  the 
Chinese  Empire,  is  a  single  village  of  Jews,  who 
have  manifestly  occupied  substantially  their  pres- 
ent location  since  the  dispersion  of  the  tribes. 
Through  all  the  centuries  they  have  quietly  pre- 
served their  ancient  ritual  and  all  the  other  essen- 
tial forms  of  their  national  identity. 


CHAPTER    VII. 


CHINESE    SUPERSTITIONS. 


To  any  one  desirous  of  study- 
ing the  effect  of  superstition 
upon  the  human  mind,  China 
probably  affords  a  field  as  choice 
as  any  on  earth.  The  entire 
mental  fabric  of  the  nation  ap- 
pears to  be  saturated  with  superstitious  notions. 
They  pla)^  an  important  part  in  the  daily  life  of 
every  Chinese,  control  his  plans,  whether  of  business 
or  pleasure,  further  or  thwart  his  wishes,  affect  the 
value  of  his  property,  determine  whom  and  when  he 
shall  marry,  interfere  with  his  relations  to  his  chil- 
dren, sometimes  shorten  his  existence,  and  always 
regulate  the  time,  place,  and  manner  of  his  burial. 
They  pervade  all  classes,  from  the  highest  to  the 
lowest,  influence  every  act  in  life,  distort  the  rea- 
soning faculties,  and  make  mischief  with  logic. 
They  are  not  merely  potent  in  the  domestic  affairs 
of  private  individuals.  Grave  questions  of  State, 
affecting  the  prosperity  if  not  the  very  existence 
of  the  empire,  have  in  many  an  instance  been  decid- 
ed by  them.  To  a  clear-headed  foreigner  resident 
in  China  and  associating  familiarly  with  the  people, 
these  superstitious  notions  give  an  impression  as  if 
the  entire  atmosphere  were  full  of  cobwebs,  against 


cinxKSE  suPF.KSTrTioi^s.  145 

which  he  is  constantly  rnshing,  sometimes  to  his 
amusement  and  often  to  his  annoyance.  But  to 
the  Chinese  they  are  no  spiders'  threads,  but  un- 
breakable wires  of  steel. 

In  the  category  of  supcrstilit)ns  are  included 
none  of  the  forms  or  features  of  either  of  the  Chi- 
nese religions  which  have  already  been  described. 
They  apparently  have  no  connection  with  religious 
belief.  Were  not  their  influence  upon  Chinese  life 
so  active  and  decided,  one  would  be  inclined  to  say 
that  they  are  to  religion  what  fog  is  to  water.  But 
their  power  is  universal,  constant,  and  positive 
where  religion  is  often  only  negative.  They  lack 
the  consistency  and  symmetrical  outlines  possessed 
by  even  a  false  religion.  They  are  the  vagaries  of 
belief,  the  isolated,  nondescript  odds  and  ends  of 
faith.  They  are  like  miscellaneous  material  left  on 
hand  after  the  completion  of  a  system  of  super- 
natural religion,  but  practically  more  potent  and 
influential  than  the  system  itself.  A  Chinese  will 
watch  complacently  the  destruction  of  a  mud  Bud- 
dha, but  will  refuse  to  set  out  on  a  journey  until 
an  astrologer  has  been  consulted  and  named  a  lucky 
day.  He  will  revile  all  the  gods  in  the  Taoist  sys- 
tem, and  refuse  permission  to  a  neighbor  to  build 
even  a  low  chimney. 

There  is  one  large  class  of  Chinese  superstitions 
that  has  a  sort  of  topographical  character.  They 
relate  to  locality,  and  are  grouped  under  the  na- 
tive term  as  feiig  sJiiti.  There  fortunately  is  no 
English  equivalent  to  this  word,  since,  if  we  had 
the  word,  we  should  have  the  thing.  It  literally 
means  "  wind  and  water,"  and  may  be  explained 


14^  THE   REAL    CHINA  MAX. 

sufficiently  for  our  purposes  as  follows  :  Each  par- 
ticular spot  of  ground  in  the  empire  has  its  own 
spiritual  forces  or  influences.  These  are  inherent 
in  the  spot,  and  are  affected  by  any  change  in  the 
contour  or  condition  of  it,  and  also  by  all  changes 
in  the  circumstances  of  surrounding  localities. 
Modify  in  any  way  or  to  any  extent  the  environ- 
ment of  a  particular  plot  of  ground,  and  the  geo- 
mantic  forces  of  the  plot  are  affected  for  better  or 
worse,  but  generally,  as  observation  shows,  for 
worse. 

These  spiritual  influences — that  is,  this  f^'ig  shiii 
— may  be  friendly  to  one  person  and  hostile  to  an- 
other. Thus  one  Chinese  may  build  a  house  or  a 
place  of  business  upon  a  particular  spot  of  earth, 
and  the  fcng  shut  being  favorable  to  him,  pros- 
perity will  come  to  him  and  his  ;  but  if  another 
Chinese  should  construct  the  same  building,  for 
the  same  purpose,  upon  the  same  location,  he 
would  only  meet  with  disaster,  because  the  local 
influences  were  hostile  to  him.  His  children  would 
die,  his  business  be  ruined,  and  the  curse  of  evil 
spirits  would  involve  him  in  hopeless  destruction. 
Upon  the  other  hand,  if  this  second  Chinese  should 
construct  a  different  style  of  building,  or  the  same 
building  for  another  purpose,  the  local  powers 
might  be  satisfied  not  to  annoy  him.  It  may  be 
safe  to  open  a  meat  market  at  some  spot  where  the 
spirits  of  the  locality  will  not  allow  dry-goods  or 
hardware  to  be  sold  in  peace.  To  take  another 
illustration,  Brown  may  bury  his  mother  in  a  cer- 
tain spot  and  the  old  lady  will  rest  quietly,  her 
spirit  reposing  undisturbed  and  undisturbing  in  the 


TOMB  OF  THE  EMPEROR  YUNG  LO  (l)IEl)  A.l).  I425), 


CJIIXKSK    SUrKRSTITIOXS.  149 

coffin.  But  suppose  Smith,  instead  of  Brown,  were 
to  huiy  his  mother  in  the  given  spot.  The  old 
lady  miglit  distress  and  annoy  him  day  and  night. 
Or  the  mother  of  either  may  be  quiet  there  for  a 
while,  when  something  done  by  Jones  in  the  neigh- 
borhood arouses  her  ire,  and  her  spirit  comes  forth 
and  allows  no  one  to  rest  until  some  action  has 
been  taken  to  (juiet  her  soul  and  to  restore  the 
disturbed  fcng  shiii.  Only  a  few  years  since  a 
number  of  high  Chinese  officials  united  in  a  peti- 
tion to  the  throne,  asking  that  a  stop  be  put  to 
mining  coal  and  iron  at  a  point  forty  miles  distant 
from  the  imperial  tombs,  upon  the  plea  that  this 
mining  would  disturb  the  bones  of  the  empress, 
who  had  recently  been  buried.  A  few  years  earlier 
the  viceroy  at  Foo  Chow  formally  reported  to  the 
Emperor  that  p(n-mission  ought  not  to  be  granted 
to  certain  foreigners  to  erect  buildings  upon  the 
slope  of  a  hill  within  the  walls  of  the  city.  He 
based  his  objection  upon  the  asserted  fact  that  a 
great  dragon  rested  underneath  Foo  Chow  and  sup- 
ported the  foundations  of  the  city  ;  that  at  the  spot 
named  the  veins  and  arteries  of  the  dragon  came 
near  to  the  surface,  and  hence  that  the  weight  of 
the  buildings,  if  constructed,  would  impede  his 
circulation. 

Tung  Chih,  the  Emperor  next  preceding  the 
present,  died  in  January,  1875.  He  was  not  buried 
until  tlie  following  October,  as  no  place  could  be 
found  in  which  his  remains  could  be  deposited 
without  disturbing  the  fi'/ig  s/iiii.  In  order  to 
preserve  the  balance  of  spiritual  influences,  the 
present  dynasty  had  provided   two  imperial  ceme- 


15<^  THE  REAL    CHlXAMAiV. 

teries,  one  about  one  hundred  miles  east  of  Peking, 
and  the  other  at  the  same  distance  to  the  west. 
Imperial  remains  are  placed  alternately  in  these 
abodes  of  the  dead.  As  Hsein  Feng,  the  father  of 
Tung  Chih,  had  been  buried  in  the  eastern  ceme- 
tery, the  young  man  himself,  according  to  rule, 
should  have  been  laid  to  rest  in  the  western.  But 
the  court  astrologers  declared,  as  a  result  of  their 
divinations,  that  no  place  could  be  found  there 
where  he  might  lie  without  injury  to  the  State,  and 
hence  that  he  must  be  buried  elsewhere.  Months 
of  investigation,  repeated  references  to  different 
boards  and  departments  of  the  public  service,  and 
numerous  commands  from  the  new  Emperor  fol- 
lowed, until,  after  nine  months  of  effort,  it  was 
finally  decided  that  he  positively  could  not  be  in- 
terred in  the  western  cemeter}-,  where  he  belonged, 
but  with  certain  precautionary  and  conciliatory 
measures  he  might  be  put  under  ground  in  the 
eastern.  This  was  done  as  the  lesser  of  two  evils. 
The  whole  empire  had  been  stirred  up  over  the  ques- 
tion ;  it  had  been  the  vital  question  at  numerous 
councils  of  State,  and  a  large  sum  of  money,  esti- 
mated at  $250,000,  had  been  expended,  all  to  de- 
termine at  what  spot  the  remains  of  a  wortliless 
and  vicious  )^oung  man  might  be  put  out  of  sight. 
The  irreverent  person  is  found  in  Cliina,  as  else- 
where, and  there  were  those  who  asserted  in  tea- 
houses and  other  places  of  public  assemblage  that 
the  difficulty  was  only  the  result  of  a  combination, 
a  sort  of  corner  on  eligible  lots,  formed  by  the  as- 
trologers. They  did  not  too  often  have  the  oppor- 
tunity of   controlling   the   question   of  an   imperial 


cniNl-isK  srpi-:ksTiTiON<;,  151 

place  of  burial,  and  did  not  propose  to  decide  the 
question  in  this  case  so  long  as  there  was  any 
money  to  be  gained  by  the  creation  of  difficulties 
and  obstructions.  There  is,  however,  no  reason  to 
believe  that  such  was  tlie  case.  If  a  census  of  the 
coffins  occupied  but  unburied  within  the  limits  of 
the  empire  of  China  to-day  could  be  taken,  the  re- 
sult would  be  startling.  They  are  more  commonly 
deposited  in  temples,  but  are  to  be  found  in  pri- 
vate houses,  in  workshops,  and  are  often  seen  cov- 
ered by  mats  in  open  fields.  Lack  of  time  for  the 
elaborate  funeral  exercises,  or  of  funds  to  meet  the 
extravagant  expenses  dictated  by  custom,  is  in  some 
instances  the  cause  of  the  delay,  but  in  a  vast 
majority  of  cases  it  is  caused  b}'  trouble  about  the 
feng  shiii.  Every  family  in  tlie  country  has  had 
its  own  experience  of  this  sort.  The  remains  must 
rest,  for  religious  reasons,  as  shown  in  another 
chapter,  in  the  ancestral  burying-grounds  of  the 
family.  The  fortune-tellers  are  invariably  consult- 
ed upon  this  and  other  details  of  the  last  rites,  and 
they  point  out  that  the  spirits  interpose  certain  ob- 
jections. Then  arises  a  fresh  question  :  By  what 
rearrangement  of  the  ground,  change  in  its  con- 
tour, or  readjustment  of  surroundings  can  these 
objections  be  removed  .''  In  a  majority  of  cases  the 
trouble  is  easily  adjusted,  and  by  some  absurdly 
trivial  and  inconsequential  act,  such  iis  the  planting 
of  a  tree  at  a  particular  spot  in  the  cemetery,  or 
perhaps  the  removal  of  a  shrub  or  a  stone.  But 
in  many  instances  the  spirits  are  obstinate,  and  the 
question  remains  unsolved  for  months  and  even 
years.     In   the   mean  time,  he  would  be  indeed  a 


152  THE   REAL    CH IX AM  AX. 

brave  Chinese  who  would  venture  to  ignore  the 
feiig  shut  and  bury  his  dead.  It  ought  to  be 
said  that  this  delay  is  not  objectionable  on  the 
score  of  health,  as  might  be  expected,  since  Chi- 
nese coffins  as  a  rule  are  hermetically  sealed. 

Beyond  a  question,  in  the  enormous  class  of  pro- 
fessional astrologers  and  diviners  in  China  there 
are  many  rapacious  frauds.  There  are  quack  doc- 
tors and  disreputable  attorne3's  in  the  land.  But 
these  are  exceptions,  not  the  rule.  This  feng 
shui  delusion  holds  the  entire  Chinese  nation  in 
subjection,  and  the  professors  of  the  art  of  divina- 
tion are,  as  a  class,  as  sincerely  its  victims  as  are 
those  who  employ  them  to  solve  its  tangled  mys- 
teries in  their  own  affairs.  To  refer  again  to  the 
burial  of  Tung  Chili,  a  large  number  of  the  ablest 
officials  of  the  empire  made  no  effort  to  conceal 
their  anxiety  as  to  the  effect  of  his  being  placed  in 
the  eastern  cemetery.  And  when,  in  subsequent 
years,  famine,  flood,  and  other  disasters  came  upon 
the  nation,  some  of  these  were  bold  enough  to 
point  out  in  written  memorials  to  the  throne  that 
these  calamities  came  as  a  result  of  violated  fciig 
shiiiy  as  punishments  for  the  interment  of  the  late 
Emperor  in  a  spot  where  he  did  not  properly  be- 
long. 

A  volume  could  be  written  composed  entirely  of 
illustrations  of  the  power  which  this  fcng  shut, 
this  topographical  superstition,  has  upon  the  minds 
of  the  nation.  It  is  recognized  in  the  statutes  of 
the  empire.  A  Chinese  may  sue  and  recover  dam- 
ages at  law  against  another  for  any  action  which 
can  be  shown  to  the  satisfaction  of  the  judge  to 


Cn/XKSE    SL-rJ'.RSTlTJONS.  153 

have  unfavorably  affected  the  fi'ii^:;  shut  of  his 
house  or  phice  of  business.  A  chimney  or  a  win- 
dow overlooking  his  premises  would  at  once  be  ac- 
cepted as  a  valid  cause  of  action.  And  the  number 
of  lawsuits  based  upon  this  class  of  complaints  is 
very  considerable.  Years  ago  the  Secretary  of  the 
Chinese  Treasury,  who  was  also  a  celebrated  poet, 
refused  to  permit  a  well-known  American  who  re- 
sided next  door  to  him,  and  wlio  was  in  the  service 
of  the  Chinese  Government,  to  build  any  chimneys 
to  his  house,  as  they  would  affect  the  fcn^^  sliui 
of  the  secretary's  residence.  In  consequence,  the 
American  could  have  no  adequate  fires  in  his  rooms 
during  the  cold  winters,  and  was  forced  to  depend 
upon  charcoal  brasiers  and  outside  clothing.  Later, 
the  construction  of  a  high  chimney  for  some  gas 
works  in  the  capital  reduced  by  more  than  one  half 
the  value  of  all  structures  within  a  mile  of  the  ob- 
jectionable work,  except  such  as  could  be  moved 
away.  Church  towers  and  spires  are  an  indiscretion 
in  China,  if  not  a  positive  menace  of  danger  to  those 
who  construct  them,  since,  in  the  minds  of  the  peo- 
ple, their  effect  upon  the  locality  is  liable  to  be  so 
injurious  in  a  great  variety  of  supernatural  ways. 

The  effect  of  such  a  system  upon  the  lives  of 
those  who  accept  it  can  hardly  be  realized.  That 
it  must  interfere  with  business,  check  enterprise, 
and  hamper  that  individual  freedom  of  action  which 
is  essential  to  healthy  development — all  this  is  evi- 
dent. But  it  goes  far  be3'^ond  this.  It  makes  men 
by  turns  crazy  fanatics  and  senseless  cowards. 
And  no  cowardice  is  so  damaging  and  hopeless  as 
that  which  fears  intangible,  unseen  dangers — dan- 


154  THE   REAL    C//IXA.VAy. 

gers  which  a  man  cannot  struggle  against,  and 
from  which  he  cannot  run.  It  can  easily  be  imag- 
ined that  such  a  system,  with  its  innumerable 
ramifications  and  varieties  of  application,  might 
absolutely  block  the  wheels  of  organized  social 
and  business  life,  and  bring  all  things  to  a  stand- 
still. Perhaps  it  would  were  not  the  Chinese  re- 
markable for  their  capacity  of  adjustment  and  for 
the  patience  and  success  with  which  they  manage  to 
evade  difficulties  and  to  compromise  where  they 
cannot  readily  conquer.  Were  they  less  phleg- 
matic, good-natured,  and  practical,  the  existence  of 
this  universal  superstition  must  long  since  have 
driven  the  entire  race  into  lunacy. 

They  have  a  great  variety  of  methods  of  placat- 
ing the  spirits  of  any  locality,  of  so  adjusting  and 
rearranging  local  influences  as  to  ward  off  evil  and 
invite  good.  In  any  given  case  the  diviner  is  the 
man  who  points  out  the  danger,  and  he  also  fur- 
nishes the  prescription  by  following  which  it  may 
be  avoided.  In  passing  through  the  streets  of  a 
Chinese  city  it  is  not  unusual  to  see,  set  in  the  face 
of  a  brick  wall,  a  square  stone,  upon  which  is  cut 
four  characters  which  read  :  "  This  stone,  from 
Mount  Tai,  is  worthy,"  or,  "  This  stone,  from 
South  Mountain,  can  overcome,"  as  the  case  may 
be.  The  explanation  is  simple.  "  Mount  Tai" 
and  "  South  Mountain"  are  two  famous  sacred 
spots  in  China.  Stones  from  tliem  have  been 
brought,  often  at  no  slight  expense,  cut  as  de- 
scribed, and  set  into  walls  at  particular  points  as  a 
prescribed  corrective  of  some  imaginary  evil  influ- 
ences.    They  are   more   commonly  seen    placed  in 


CHINESE    SUPERS TITIONS. 


'55 


the  wall  of  a  building  exactly  opposite  the  end 
of  a  street  which  opens  into  but  does  not  cross  the 
street  (hi  which  tlie  building  stands.  In  such  case 
the  theory  is  that  they  will  cause  any  evil  spirits  or 


PACODA    AT    YU    CHUAN    SUAN    (iMl'KRIAL    SUMMER    PAI.ACK). 


influences  which  may  come  down  this  street  to 
turn  at  right  angles  and  proceed,  whereas  but  for 
the  presence  of  these  sacred  stones  they  would 
penetrate  the  wall  and  work  mischief  to  the  inmates 


156  THE   REAL    CHEXAMAX. 

of  the  building.  Another  simple  and  inexpensive 
method  of  securing  good  fortune  is  to  write  upon 
a  strip  of  red  paper  four  Chinese  characters  which 
mean,  "  May  he  opposite  me  receive  happiness," 
or,  "  May  he  opposite  me  secure  wealth."  Thus 
written,  tlie  slip  is  posted  on  the  wall  opposite  to  the 
main  entrance  to  the  residence  or  office  of  him  for 
whose  benefit  it  is  intended.  As  the  word  "  me" 
in  either  sentence  refers  to  tlie  slip  of  paper  itself, 
it  will  at  once  be  seen  to  apply  to  the  Chinese 
across  the  street,  by  whom  it  was  posted. 

A  considerable  number  of  the  pagodas  which 
add  beauty  to  the  Chinese  landscape  have  been 
constructed  with  a  view  to  the  permanent  adjust- 
ment of  these  spiritual  influences.  The  Chinese 
appear  to  believe  in  "  luck  in  odd  numbers,"  since 
they  must  always  contain  an  odd  number  of  stories. 
That  her^e  repi'oduced  is  one  of  the  most  beautiful 
in  the  empire.  It  is  built  upon  the  summit  of  "  The 
Hill  of  the  Jade  Foirntain,"  in  the  enclosure  of  the 
Summer  Palace,  about  eight  miles  west  of  Peking. 

Small  shrines  are  also  built  for  this  same  object 
at  prescribed  points.  These  are  seen  upon  the 
roofs  of  houses  in  evei'y  city.  In  such  cases  they 
are  only  suitable  for  sparrows'  nests  in  point  of 
size,  and  are  put  in  place  to  correct  some  disturb- 
ance of  the  fciig  s/iui.  Far  more  pretentious 
structures  have  been  built  ir[)()n  river-banks  by  im- 
perial command  to  placate  the  local  deity,  the 
"  river  dragon,"  who  in  some  fit  of  anger,  or  pos- 
sibly ill  order  to  attract  attention,  had  undermined 
a  dyke,  or  in  soni(>  otlu-r  way  caused  a  flood  and 
llnis  devastated  the  surrounding  country. 


CHIl^ESE   SUPERSTITIOXS.  157 

There  are  innumerable  forms  of  supernatural 
influences  courted  or  feared  by  the  Chinese  other 
than  that  known  as  fcn^  shuL  There  are  fortu- 
nate and  unfortunate  times  and  seasons.  If  land 
is  to  be  purchased,  a  lucky  day  must  be  discovered 
upon  which  the  transfer  may  be  made.  If  a  new 
house  is  to  be  occupied,  the  family  can  safely  enter 
it  only  upon  a  lucky  day.  If  a  merchant  is  to  open 
a  new  place  of  business  or  an  official  take  up  a  new 
post  of  duty,  the  one  may  open  his  store  and  the 
other  take  the  seals  of  office  only  upon  a  lucky  day. 
The  dates  of  weddings  and  funerals  are  invariably 
fixed  in  the  same  way.  The  diviner  is  consulted, 
furnished  with  certain  data,  and  with  these  as  a 
basis,  a  routine  of  hocus-pocus  is  gone  through 
with  and  a  suitable  date  announced.  In  the  case 
of  a  prospective  wedding,  the  fortune-teller  goes  a 
step  further.  He  is  given  two  slips  of  paper  con- 
taining the  family  and  given  names  of  the  two 
matrimonial  candidates,  the  year,  month,  day,  and 
hour  of  the  birth  of  each,  and  from  these  he  deter- 
mines whether  a  matrimonial  alliance  between 
them  would  be  fortunate.  If  he  decides  in  the 
negative,  the  scheme  is  dropped  at  once.  There  is 
no  thought  of  appeal  from  his  judgment,  and  no 
Chinese  would  be  bold  enough  to  marry  in  the  face 
of  it.  As  there  is  never  any  affection  existing  be- 
tween the  two  persons,  the  abandonment  of  the 
alliance  involves  no  sorrow. 

There  are  many  varieties  of  Chinese  geomancj'. 
Space  will  not  allow  a  description  of  them,  nor  are 
they  of  sufficient  interest  or  peculiarit}^  to  warrant 
it.     It  is   enough    to   remark,  in    passing,   that  in 


158  THE   REAL    CHIXAMAN: 

some  of  their  features  they  bear  a  very  close  fam- 
ily resemblance  to  similar  methods  of  learning  or 
forecasting  the  future  and  the  decrees  of  fate 
which  were -in  vogue  in  Europe  more  than  a  cen- 
tury ago.  Neither  Asiatic  nor  European  may  have 
borrowed  from  the  other.  They  either  came  from 
a  common  original  source,  or  their  strong  resem- 
blance shows  that  the  human  intellect  is  essentially 
the  same  throughout  the  earth. 

Times  of  distress  appear  to  bring  to  the  surface 
the  superstitious  ideas  of  the  Chinese,  much  as  they 
are  said  to  develop  the  religious  feeling  of  nominal 
Christians.  In  seasons  of  drought  the  inhabitants 
of  Peking  go  by  tens  of  thousands  to  a  particular 
spot  in  the  old  Mongol  wall  of  the  city,  several 
miles  outside  of  the  present  enclosure,  and  there 
burn  incense  and  pray  for  rain  at  an  abandoned 
fox-hole.  They  literall}'  pray  to  the  hole,  and  not 
to  the  fox.  His  ancestors  doubtless  misunder- 
stood the  devotional  tendencies  of  their  visitors — 
perhaps  thought  that  they  came  for  blood  rather 
than  water — and  hence  moved  away  generations 
ago. 

This  may  seem  a  traveler's  fox  story,  but  it  is  a 
fact.  The  course  of  the  Imperial  Government  in 
times  of  lack  of  rain  is  not  far  removed  from  it  in 
absurdity,  and  may  render  the  conduct  of  the 
populace  more  credible.  In  such  times  of  distress 
the  first  act  of  the  Emperor  is  to  prohibit  the  kill- 
ing of  beef.  I  have  never  been  able  to  secure  an 
intelligent  explanation  of  this  act.  It  probably  has 
some  connection  with  the  fact  that  bullocks  are 
offered  as  sacrifices  upon  tlie  altar  of  Heaven,  and 


CHINESE    SCl'ElxSJTnONS.  159 

hence  are  supposed  t<j  have  a  semi-sacred  char- 
acter. This  measure  failinjj^  to  produce  rain,  the 
Km[)eror  goes  to  tlie  altar  just  mentioned,  and 
there,  on  behalf  of  himself  and  the  nation,  sacri- 
fices to  Heaven  and  ])rays  for  rain.  If  relief  fiiils 
to  come,  he  may  repeat  tlu;  sacrilice  and  prayer, 
and  possibly  go  a  third  time.  But  if  his  priiyers 
at  the  Temple  of  Heaven  prove  unavailing,  he  re- 
sorts to  extreme  measures.  Several  hundred  years 
ago  a  piece  of  iron  was  found  in  a  well  in  a  temple 
enclosure  several  hundred  miles  to  the  southwest 
of  Peking.  It  was  declared  to  have  dropped  into 
the  well  from  Heaven,  and  has  since  been  kept  as 
a  sacred  relic  in  the  temple.  The  Emperor  sends 
a  commission  headed  by  an  imperial  prince  to  the 
temple  to  receive  this  bit  of  rusty  iron  from  the 
priests  and  carry  it  to  the  capital.  There  it  is  de- 
posited with  elaborate  ceremonies  in  a  temple,  and 
on  a  day  named  in  advance  by  proclamation,  the 
Emperor  proceeds  to  this  temple,  prostrates  him- 
self before  the  bit  of  iron,  and  prays  to  it  for 
rain. 

It  is  not  often  that  the  spirits  which,  in  his  im- 
agination, fill  the  atmosphere  about  every  Chinese, 
which  he  fears  and  consults — it  is  not  often  that 
they  are  shaped  by  his  hands  into  visible  forms 
and  worshiped  in  temples.  Occasionally  he  does, 
however,  find  an  object  of  worship  ready-made  by 
nature,  and  he  makes  haste  to  propitiate  and  court 
its  favor  by  offerings  and  prayers.  Thus  a  little 
south  of  the  centre  of  the  province  of  Shan  Hsi  is 
a  city  called  Ling  Shih  Hsien  (the  City  of  the  Spir- 
itual Stone).      Within   the  walls  of  the  city  is  the 


l6o  THE   REAL    CIIIXAMAX. 

' '  Temple  of  the  Spiritual  Stone, ' '  a  small  but  beau- 
tiful and  well-kept  temple,  with  a  staff  of  priests, 
sleek,  well  fed,  and  manifestly  well  cared  for.  I 
visited  it  in  1874  and  saw  this  "  Spiritual  Stone," 
which  has  been  worshiped  for  centuries,  and 
which  has  not  only  its  shrine  and  staff  of  servitors, 
but  has  given  a  name  to  a  city  and  a  district  in  the 
government  of  China.  It  is  a  dark-colored  stone, 
some  four  or  five  feet  in  diameter,  of  a  spherical 
shape,  yet  quite  irregular  in  outline,  worn  smooth 
and  glossy  by  the  kissing  of  many  generations. 
The  most  wonderful  stories  were  poured  into  my 
ears  regarding  its  power  and  kindly  disposition  by 
the  priests  who  attended  me.  T  was  invited  to  be- 
lieve that  before  me  at  last  lay  the  potent  source 
of  all  good,  and  the  sure  guard  against  evil.  It 
was  a  panacea  for  all  diseases,  a  balm  for  every 
sorrow.  Near  it  lay  a  small  hammer,  and  the  skep- 
tical Avere  allowed  to  strike  the  stone  and  thus 
prove  its  spiritual  qualities.  Having  expressed  my 
doubts  of  this  curious  divinity  to  the  priests,  the 
hammer  was  given  me,  and  I  was  invited  to  use  it 
and  prove  whether  his  spiritual  highness  would  re- 
spond. I  did  so,  and  gave  the  stone  a  rather  sharp 
rap,  when  a  clear,  bell-like  tone  was  heard  in  re- 
sponse. The  priests  were  triumphant,  and  I  was 
entirely  convinced  that  their  wonderful  rock  god 
was  either  a  meteorolite  or  a  fine  specimen  of  na- 
tive iron  ore  which  abounds  in  that  section  of  the 
country. 

In  a  similar  way  peculiar  spiritual  powers  are 
sometimes  supposed  to  exist  in  old  trees.  Altars 
are  erected   in   front  of   them,  and    the   trunk  and 


CHINK  SE    S I  'PER  S  TI'I  'IONS.  1 6 1 

limbs  are  luing  tliick  with  native  offerings,  These 
consist  mainly  of  bits  of  board  upon  which  are 
written  sentences  of  praise  for  the  virtues  which 
the  tree  is  supposed  to  possess,  and  the  benefits 
derived  from  prayer  to  it.  I  saw  many  such  in  a 
long  journey  made  in  1874.  I  saw  one  standing  in 
a  wheat  field  about  five  miles  from  the  capital  of 
the  province  of  Shan  Hsi,  a  gnarled,  weather- 
beaten  locust,  evidently  hundreds  of  years  of  age. 
The  natives  insisted  that  it  dated  back  to  the  Yao 
dynasty,  which  would  make  it  more  than  four 
thousand  years  old.  While  making  all  due  allow- 
ance for  devotional  exaggeration,  it  may  be  said 
that  this  locust  has  a  wide  reputation,  not  merely 
for  its  spiritual  properties,  but  as  being  the  oldest 
and  most  venerable  tree  in  the  empire.  It  has 
been  worshiped  for  many  generations.  When  I 
saw  it  it  was  quite  overburdened  with  tablets  of 
all  sorts,  containing  such  inscriptions  as  "  Praise 
for  benefits  received,"  "  Tiianks  for  healing  mer- 
cies," "Ask  and  ye  shall  receive,"  etc.  It  had 
a  special  reputation  for  curing  diseases  of  the 
eye,  and,  in  consequence,  viewed  at  a  distance,  it 
resembled  a  ragged  beggar,  covered  as  it  was  with 
strips  of  cloth  upon  which  a  pair  of  eyes  had  been 
painted.  These  had  been  prepared  by  those  whose 
vision  had,  as  they  believed,  been  improved  by  a 
pilgrimage  to  the  tree,  one  end  of  the  cloth  being 
nailed  to  it,  and  the  strip  left  to  sway  and  flutter 
in  the  wind. 

There  are  an  immense  variety  of  whimsical  and 
amusing  superstitions  touching  nearly  every  event 
in  the  ordinary  life  of  the  Chinese,  yet  less  impor- 


1 62  THE   REAL    CHI XA MAN. 

tant  than  those  described.  No  person  of  the  female 
sex  is  allowed,  under  any  circumstances,  to  ap- 
proach a  well  that  is  in  the  process  of  being  dug. 
A  red  flag  is  hoisted  when  the  first  spadeful  of 
earth  is  removed,  and  that  flag  is  the  warning  for 
all  females  to  keep  their  distance.  I  could  never 
discover  the  rationale  of  this  practice.  No  matter 
how  formal  or  prolonged  a  dinner  may  be — and  I 
have  attended  one  consisting  of  seventy-eight 
courses  and  lasting  twelve  hours — the  Chinese  do 
not  allow  the  plates  of  any  persons  at  the  table  to 
be  changed  from  the  beginning  of  the  feast  to  the 
end.  On  one  occasion,  being  the  guest  of  honor 
at  a  dinner  in  the  most  fashionable  restaurant  of 
Peking,  my  host,  who  was  a  high  official  as  well 
as  an  intimate  friend,  remarked  :  "  I  have  been 
your  guest  and  you  have  been  mine  many  times. 
We  each  understand  well  the  customs  of  the  other. 
I  have  noticed  at  foreign  tables  that  the  plates  are 
removed  and  clean  ones  placed  after  each  course. 
You  have  undoubtedly  noticed  that  we  never 
change  ours.  Do  you  know  the  reason  why  we 
require  our  guests  to  use  the  same  plate  from  the 
beginning  of  a  feast  to  the  end  ?"  As  I  had  always 
supposed  that  the  only  reason  was  a  lack  of  tidi- 
ness on  the  part  of  the  Chinese,  but,  in  politeness, 
could  not  say  so,  I  found  it  more  convenient  to 
reply  tliat  I  did  not  know.  My  host  appeared  to 
read  my  thoughts,  for  he  continued  :  "  You  may 
have  charged  it  to  untidiness,  but  that  is  not  the 
explanation.  We  have  a  very  old  superstition, 
which  is  expressed  in  the  saying,  '  Huan  Chia  huo 
sz    hsi    fu    erh '  "  ("Change    the    plates    and    the 


CniXKSE    SI  'I'l-.RS  '/■/  /•/(  ).\'.S-.  I  65 

housewife  will  die").      Tlicsi;   arc   oivcn  as  samples 
of  an  unmimbered  host. 

No  sketch  of  the  superstitions  currL-nt  among  the 
Chinese  wouki  be  just  and  accurate  if  it  failed  to 
include  the  darker  shades  of  the  picture,  or,  in 
other  words,  to  point  out  the  inhuman  conduct 
and  horrible  cruelty  wliicli  follow  ihem  as  an  in- 
evitable result.  Enough  has  already  been  said  in 
these  pages  to  show  that  family  affection  has  at 
least  a  normal  degree  of  development  among  the 
Chinese.  They  are  not  lacking  in  regard  for  those 
who  are  related  to  them  by  ties  of  blood.  On  the 
contrary,  they  make  a  boast  of  their  love  of  kin- 
dred, and  the  most  offensive  and  disgraceful  adjec- 
tive they  can  apply  to  an  enemy  is  one  implying 
that  he  is  lacking  in  this  regard.  Yet  nev'er,  if  it 
can  possibly  be  avoided,  will  tliey  allow  a  relative, 
no  matter  how  near  and  dear  he  may  be,  to  die 
quietly  in  bed.  At  the  last  moment,  perhaps  at 
the  instant  when  life  is  passing  from  the  body,  it 
must  be  removed  from  the  bed  and  stretched  upon 
a  board.  When  sufficient  warning  is  given  of  ap- 
proaching dissolution,  this  is  done  witli  the  utmost 
gentleness  and  care.  But  at  all  costs  it  must  be 
done  before  life  is  extinct,  and  hence  is  often  effect- 
ed with  such  haste  and  inevitable  harshness  as  to 
increase  suffering,  if  not  to  hasten  the  end.  This 
course  is  the  result  of  a  superstition  that  if  a  per- 
son dies  in  bed  his  soul  takes  possession  of  and  re- 
mains in  the  bed,  and  renders  both  it  and  the  room 
uninhabitable  by  other  persons.  In  all  cases  where 
death  occurs  before  this  removal  has  been  effected, 
the  bed  must  be  torn  down  and  destroyed  and  the 


l66  THE   REAL    CHIXAMAN. 

entire  room  renovated  before  it  can  again  be 
used. 

Charges  of  infanticide  have,  from  the  beginning 
of  our  knowledge  of  the  Chinese,  been  brought 
against  them.  Intelligent  foreigners,  long  resident 
in  the  empire,  have  positively  insisted  that  it  was  a 
common  practice.  Others,  equally  reliable  and 
well  qualified  to  speak  upon  the  subject,  have 
with  equal  earnestness  denied  its  existence.  Dr. 
S.  Wells  Williams,  than  whom  no  more  competent 
and  careful  authority  exists,  says  of  the  practice  in 
Southern  China  :  "  Investigations  have  been  made 
about  Canton  and  evidence  obtained  to  show  that 
it  is  comparatively  rare,  and  not  at  all  counte- 
nanced by  public  opinion,  though  by  no  means  un- 
known nor  punished  by  law  when  done."  There 
certainly  is  no  evidence  to  show  that  it  is,  in  any 
fair  meaning  of  the  word,  a  practice  in  the  northern 
parts  of  the  empire. 

But  a  foreigner  resident  in,  say,  Peking,  if  he  be 
of  an  observant  disposition,  will  soon  be  struck 
with  one  strange  fact.  He  sees  an  abundance  of 
children  playing  about  the  streets,  of  all  ages  and 
sizes.  He  can  readily  see,  from  the  manner  of 
life  of  the  people  and  the  entire  absence  of  trained 
physicians,  that  the  death-rate  among  the  young 
must  be  at  least  as  great  as  in  any  Western  cit}^  ; 
yet  he  never  sees  a  child's  funeral.  He  will  puzzle 
over  this  problem  for  a  time,  perhaps  ask  an  ex- 
planation from  a  native  friend,  and  receive  no  sat- 
isfactory answer,  since  it  is  both  impolite  and  un- 
Inck}'  in  Chinese  ideas  to  discuss  such  a  topic. 
Then,    if   lie   happens    to   be    upon   the   street  very 


CiriNESF.    Sl'Pl-.RSTITIOyS.  167 

early  some  morning,  lie  will  find  t!ie  hideous  ex- 
planation of  his  puzzle.  He  will  meet,  as  I  have 
many  a  time,  the  dead  cart,  a  large  covered  vehicle 
drawn  by  two  oxen,  having  a  sign  across  the  front 
stating  its  horrible  office  ,and  piled  to  the  brim  with 
the  bodies  of  children.  I  have  seen  at  least  a  hun- 
dred in  the  cart  at  once,  thrown  in  as  garbage, 
nearly  all  of  tliem  naked,  a  few  tied  up  in  old 
reed  baskets,  and  fewer — never  more  than  one  or 
two — in  cheap  board  coffins.  These  carts  go  about 
the  streets  each  night,  pick  up  these  pitiable  re- 
mains, some  of  them  mutilated  by  dogs  ;  they  are 
thrown  in  like  so  much  wood,  and  taken  to  a  pit 
outside  of  the  city  walls,  into  which  tliey  are 
dumped  and  there  covered  with  quicklime.  Small 
wonder  that  a  theory  of  infanticide  was  deemed 
necessary  to  account  for  such  an  unutterably  hid- 
eous custom  ! 

And  yet,  so  far  at  least  as  North  China  is  con- 
cerned, these  unfortunate  bits  of  humanity  are  sel- 
dom the  victims  of  intentional  infanticide  ;  but  they 
are  the  victims  of  one  of  the  most  cruel  and  revolt- 
ing superstitions  that  ever  found  lodgment  in  a 
human  brain.  When  a  child  sickens,  it  has,  ac- 
cording to  the  means  and  intelligence  of  the  par- 
ents, the  same  anxious  care  and  medical  attend- 
ance that  would  be  given  among  us  ;  but  if  all 
remedies  fail  of  effect,  and  death  is  apparently  near, 
the  situation  changes  at  once.  The  little  thing  is 
stripped  naked  and  placed  on  the  floor,  which  is 
either  of  mud  or  l^rick,  just  inside  the  outer  door 
of  the  room.  The  parents  leave  it  there,  and  watch 
the  issue.     If,  which  is  seldom  the  case,  it  survives 


l68  THE  REAL    CHINAMAN. 

the  ordeal,  it  is  a  true  child  of  their  own  flesh  and 
blood  ;  if  it  dies,  then  it  never  was  their  child,  but 
an  evil  spirit  seeking  admission  to  their  hearth- 
stone in  order  to  work  them  mischief  and  ruin. 
Hence,  it  is  thrown  into  the  street  to  be  gathered 
up  by  the  dead-cart,  as  already  described.  No 
power  could  induce  them  to  give  it  proper  burial 
in  the  family  resting-place  for  the  dead.  That 
would  mean  its  adoption  by  them,  and  what  sane 
Chinese  would  adopt  an  evil  spirit  into  his  family  ? 
This  is  the  theory,  and  this  the  way  they  argue  and 
act  ;  and  the  dead-cart,  with  its  freight,  is  the  fear- 
ful result.  Evidently  such  treatment  kills  many 
young  children  who  under  other  circumstances 
would  recover,  and  the  results  of  this  superstition 
are  great  enough  to  fully  account  for  a  theory  of 
willful  infanticide. 

This  theory  and  line  of  conduct  is  common  to  all 
classes  of  the  Chinese.  The  military  governor  of 
Peking,  an  officer  of  the  highest  rank  and  a  man 
of  unusual  intelligence,  was  granted  leave  for  a 
number  of  weeks.  While  still  absent  from  duty, 
he  called  upon  me  one  afternoon.  I  was  shocked 
at  his  wretched  appearance,  and  inquired  if  he  had 
been  ill.  His  reply  is  given  in  his  own  words  : 
"  No,  I  have  not  been  ill,  but  have  seen  a  great 
deal  of  trouble.  I  have  been  niiirried  many  years, 
and  have  several  daughters.  You  know  how  anx- 
ious we  Chinese  are  for  male  offspring,  and  so  can 
imagine  how  proud  and  happy  I  was  when,  tliree 
years  ago,  a  son  was  born  to  me.  He  was  a  rugged, 
bright  boy,  and  never  ill  a  day  until  about  two 
months  ago,  when  he   began   to  pine.      I  called  our 


Cll IXF.se    si  'I'KRSri  J-JOXS.  I  69 

native  physicians,  but  lie  <^\\'\\  worse,  and  at  last, 
about  two  weeks  ago,  as  a  last  resort,  I  called  one 
of  your  foreign  doctors.  Vou  can  conceive  how 
anxious  I  was  that  he  should  live  by  my  consent 
to  that  ;  but  he  could  not  help  the  little  fellovv, 
and  one  night  last  week  I  'icas  obliged  to  tliroic  //is  boilv 
outside  the  door.'' 

Another  case  came  even  more  directly  under  my 
personal  knowledge.  A  young  missionary  lady 
went  earlier  than  usual  one  Sunday  morning  to 
the  Chinese  chapel,  in  order  to  have  lime  before 
the  service  to  inquire  after  the  grautlson  of  the 
chapel-keeper  or  janitor,  who,  she  had  been  told, 
was  ill.  There  was  an  obstruction  against  the 
door  of  the  janitoi's  room,  but  she  managed  to 
enter,  and  saw,  lying  on  the  mud  floor  of  the  room, 
and  partly  against  the  door,  the  naki'd  b(«ly  of  the 
little  boy  after  whose  health  she  wished  to  inquire. 
The  parents  and  grandparents  sat  the  farther  side 
of  the  room,  showing  deep  grief,  but  making  no 
effort  for  the  dying  child.  There  was  no  fire  in 
the  room,  though  it  was  late  in  November,  and  a 
raw,  cold  wind  blew  through  many  holes  in  the  paper 
window^s.  With  a  scream  of  horror  the  young  lady 
snatched  her  shawl  from  her  shoulders,  wrapped 
the  little  body  in  it,  and  tried  to  bring  back  the 
nearly  departed  breath.  She  sent  the  father  for  hot 
water,  had  a  fire  made,  and  at  last  succeeded  in 
restoring  some  semblance  of  life.  Then,  leaving 
strict  charge  to  keep  the  child  well  wrapped  in  her 
shawl  and  near  the  fire,  and  seeing  no  reason  to 
fear  that  the  little  fellow  would  die,  she  went  into 
church.     Returning  after  an  hour,  she  found   the 


lyo 


THE   REAL    CIIIXAMAX. 


same  obstruction  against  the  door,  and  this  time 
she  came  too  late  The  child  was  too  far  gone  to 
be  called  back  to  life,  and  died  in  her  arms.  The 
instant  she  left  the  room  to  attend  service  it  had 
again  been  stripped  and  placed  upon  the  floor,  in 
order  to  determine  whether  it  was  a  true  child  or  a 
fiend.  No  threats  or  persuasions  could  move  the 
parents  to  give  it  burial  in  the  family  cemetery. 
They  at  last  consented  to  place  it  in  a  cheap  coffin, 
carry  it  out  of  the  city  at  dawn,  and  bury  it  in 
some  field. 

This  was  an  only  child.  The  parents  and  grand- 
parents were  Christians,  and  had  for  years  lived 
lives  consistent  with  their  profession.  In  no  otTier 
way  did  they  subsequently  show  themseh^es  unfit 
to  be  regarded  as  such.  It  is  necessary  to  state 
these  facts  in  order  to  show  what  a  terrible  grip 
this  fearful  superstition  has  upon  the  Chinese 
mind. 


CHAPTER    VIII. 


CHINESE     (^  U  E  U  E  S, 


One  of  the  most  marked 
and  striking  points  of  differ- 
ence between  Oriental  and 
Western  races  is  found  in 
the  hair.  Oriental  hair  is  al- 
ways coarse,  straight,  and  a  true  jet  black.  That  of 
the  people  of  Europe  emd  America  is  softer,  silkier, 
often  inclined  to  curl,  and  of  every  variety  of  color- 
ing, except  the  dead  black  of  the  raven's  wing.  That 
is  rarely  found.  In  many  years  of  residence  in  the 
East  I  have  never  seen  upon  the  head  of  a  pure- 
blooded  Chinese,  Japanese,  Corean,  Mongolian, 
Manchu,  Malay,  or  Indian  any  other  shade  of  hair 
than  black,  excepting,  of  course,  those  heads  on 
which  age  had  bleached  the  covering  to  gray  or 
white,  and  one  family  of  Chinese  Albinos,  whose 
eyes  were  pink  and  whose  hair  was  like  driven 
snow  in   color. 

Another  and  equally  marked  point  of  difference 
is  found  in  the  growth  of  hair  upon  the  face.  No 
amount  of  coaxing  or  cultivation  ever  yet  enabled 
an  Asiatic  to  grow  more  than  a  most  scanty  beard 
or  mustache.  At  the  most  one  may  see  a  Chinese 
or  other  Oriental  with  a  few  straggling  hairs  upon 
his  chin  or  upper  lip,  or  what  is  more  common,  an 


rilE   REAL    CIIIXAMAX 


utter  absence  of  mustache  and  whiskers,  with  three 
or  four  lonp^  hairs  growing  from  a  mole  on  his 
cheek  or  chin.  For  these  the  proud  possessor  car- 
ries a  special  comb,  and  they  are  combed,  fingered. 


TEDDLING    KRUrf, 


and  generally  cared  for  with   the  utmost  attention, 
as  precious,  if  scanty,  signs  of  manhood. 

The  foreigner's  whiskers  form  the  one  mark  of 
b(;auty  which  makes  him  an  object  of  envy  to  his 
Chinese  neighbors.  They  do  not  admire  the  color 
of  his  hair,  nor  admit  that,  short  and  l)ushy  as  it 
is,  it  at  all  compares  with  their  glossy,  straight 
braids.      They  vote  his   large  nose  ugly,  dislike  his 


CIIIXESE    QUF.UE^.  1 73 

pale  complexion,  criticise  tlie  color  of  his  eyes,  and 
object  to  the  angle  at  which  they  are  set.  They 
draw  unfriendly  comparisons  between  his  ears  and 
those  found  on  their  donkeys  ;  but  in  the  matter 
of  whiskers  they  regard  him  as,  indeed,  highly 
favored  of  Heaven. 

Many  of  them  do  not  limit  their  idea  of  the 
capacity  of  foreigners  to  develop  beard  and  whis- 
kers to  one  sex.  In  the  autumn  of  1874  I  traveled 
for  several  months  in  the  far  interior  of  China, 
where  foreigners  had  seldom  if  ever  been  seen, 
with  two  American  gentlemen  as  companions. 
One  of  these  was  exceedingly  short  of  stature  and 
slight,  but  he  had  all  the  marks  of  manhood  about 
him,  including  a  distinctively  piercing  male  eye 
and  an  abundant  beard,  which  reached  well  down 
over  his  chest.  To  our  surprise,  and  the  unmeas- 
ured disgust  of  the  victim  of  Chinese  misunder- 
standing, this  gentleman  during  a  large  part  of 
our  travels  was  taken  by  the  Chinese  to  be  a  woman, 
and  my  wife.  It  is  impossible  to  explain  the  ab- 
surd mistake,  except  upon  the  ground  of  his  very 
slight  figure  and  small  stature.  In  one  city  of 
perhaps  one  hundred  thousand  people,  all  of  whom 
apparently  came  to  stare  at  us,  I  overheard  the 
following  conversation  between  two  of  the  well-to- 
do  residents  of  the  place.  Said  Ah  Hsin,  pointing 
to  my  companion,  who  was  standing  near  me  on 
the  street  :  "  That  is  a  womem."  "  Impossible," 
returned  the  other;  "  onh'  look  at  his  beard." 
"Ugh!"  grunted  Ah  Ilsin,  "you  don't  know 
much.  In  their  country  the  wcmien  have  beards 
exactly  the  same  as  the  men."     Doubting  Thomas 


174  THE  REAL    CIIIXAMAN. 

gave  vent  to  an  ejaculation  of  astonishment  at 
the  fact  and  of  admiration  at  the  broad  range  of 
his  neighbor's  information,  and  the  conversation 
ended. 

The  queue  is  more  than  the  badge  or  mark  of  a 
Chinese,  it  is  the  symbol  of  Chinese  manhood.  In 
infancy  and  childhood  the  head  is  either  clean  shav- 
en and  kept  as  smooth  and  shining  as  a  billiard-ball, 
or  patches  of  hair  are  left  to  grow  in  circles,  helter- 
skelter,  upon  its  surface,  and  from  each  arises  a 
little  tuft  or  braid,  as  though  the  blood,  in  an  ex- 
cess of  vitality,  was  sending  out  the  sprouts  of  half- 
a-dozen  queues.  It  is  only  when  the  boy  reaches 
the  age  of  tliirteen  or  fourteen  that  these  *'  baby 
sprouts"  are  shaved  off,  and  he  is  formally  in- 
vested with  the  sober  and  dignified  queue  of  man- 
hood. 

But  the  queue,  although  the  symbol  of  Chinese 
manhood,  is  not  originally  Chinese.  It  is  a  for- 
eign importation,  and  compared  with  other  fashions 
in  the  empire,  is  a  modern  and  recent  innovation. 
It  is  Tartar  or  Mongolian,  and  was  introduced  only 
about  three  hundred  years  ago  by  the  present  rul- 
ing family,  which  is  itself  foreign.  It  may  be 
added,  in  passing,  that  this  style  of  dressing  the 
hair  is  about  the  only  thing  adopted  by  the  Chiner<e 
from  the  Manchus.  Prior  to  the  present  dynasty, 
the  Chinese  did  not  shave  the  head,  and  dressed 
their  hair  much  as  we  do  ours.  When  the  throne 
was  seized  by  the  ancestor  of  the  present  ruler,  a 
decree  was  issucfl  by  the  new  Emperor  command- 
ing all  good  subjects  to  shave  the  head  and  adopt 
the  queue.     This  at  once  aroused   intense  excite- 


GROUP   OF    CHILDREN. 


CHINESE    QUEUES.  177 

ment  and  bitter  opposition  throughout  the  empire. 
To  wear  the  queue  was  held  to  be  degrading,  and 
a  badge  of  slavery  to  a  foreign  tyrant.  Mobs 
and  riots  occurred,  for  a  time  there  was  much 
trouble,  and  it  appeared  doubtful  if  the  new  fash- 
ion could  be  enforced  without  another  long  and 
bloody  war. 

The  Tartar  Emperor  was,  however,  equal  to  the 
occasion,  and  met  the  difficulty  with  that  shrewd- 
ness and  tact  which  has  made  his  name  historical 
in  China  as  the  wisest  of  all  her  rulers,  ancient  or 
modern.  He  indulged  in  no  threats,  attempted 
no  coercion  ;  he  quietly  ignored  the  opposition, 
and  issued  a  further  decree  by  which  he  forbade 
persons  convicted  of  crime  to  wear  the  qvieue,  re- 
quiring his  officers  to  cut  off  this  appendage  from 
all  such  persons,  and  not  to  allow  them  to  shave 
their  heads.  He  thus  made  a  shaven  head  and  a 
queue  a  mark  of  respectability,  and  his  new  sub- 
jects were  soon  as  eager  to  adopt  the  new  mode  of 
dressing  the  hair  as  they  had  been  determined  in 
opposition  to  it.  To  this  day  a  full  head  of  hair 
and  the  absence  of  a  queue  are  in  China  the  badge 
of  a  criminal.  The  Manchu  Emperor  went  a  step 
further,  and  called  to  his  aid  the  intense  devotion 
of  the  Chinese  to  the  doctrine  of  filial  piety.  He 
prescribed  an  unshaven  head  and  a  disheveled,  un- 
combed queue  as  one  of  the  badges  of  mourning 
the  death  of  a  parent.  For  a  period  of  one  hun- 
dred days  from  such  a  loss  no  dutiful  son  will  call 
in  the  services  of  a  barber  or  allow  his  hair  to  be 
arranged,  no  matter  how  slovenly  in  appearance  it 
may  become. 


178  THE   REAL    CHIXAMAN. 

The  queue  has  now  become  an  object  of  almost 
superstitious  reverence  among  the  Chinese.  It  is 
combed  and  dressed  with  the  greatest  care,  en- 
larged and  lengthened  with  horsehair  or  silk, 
wound  about  the  head  at  times,  and  neatly  covered 
to  protect  it  from  the  dust.  It  is  universally  treated 
as  an  object  of  dignity  and  honor.  The  Chinese 
boy  longs  for  it  as  the  American  boy  longs  for 
trousers  with  pockets  in  them.  To  pull  it  is  an 
insult  and  to  cut  it  off  a  grave  offense,  severely 
punishable  by  law. 

The  etiquette  of  the  queue  is  as  exacting  and 
particular  as  that  of  any  other  portion  of  the  cos- 
tume or  the  manners  of  the  Oriental.  It  is  the 
mark  of  a  rowdy  to  wear  it  loosely  braided.  The 
strands  must  be  drawn  tight  and  snug.  It  is  ordi- 
narily bound  with  a  black  silk  cord  and  tassel  at 
the  end,  but — white  being  the  Chinese  mourning 
color — when  a  Chinese  is  in  mourning,  the  black 
cord  must  be  exchanged  for  a  white  one.  If  a 
person,  traveling  upon  a  dusty  road,  has  coiled 
and  wrapped  up  his  queue  to  keep  it  clean,  and 
thus  meets  a  friend  or  acquaintance,  he  must,  be- 
fore recognizing  or  addressing  him,  sweep  the 
queue  down  from  its  coil  and  see  that  it  hangs 
behind  him  in  a  straight,  decorous  fashion.  Un- 
der a  similar  rule  of  propriety  no  servant  may  be 
allowed  to  appear  in  the  presence  of  his  master  or 
mistress  with  his  queue  coiled.  It  would  be  con- 
sidered as  serious  an  act  of  rudeness  as  if  he  came 
half  dressed. 

Such  and  so  intense  being  the  regard  of  the 
Chinese   for  this   national    mode    of   dressing    the 


*^*-- 


CHINESE   BARBER. 


CHINESE    QUEUES.  i8i 

hair,  it  is  not  surprising  to  one  who  knows  their 
intensely  superstitious  temperament  that  nearly 
every  year,  in  some  section  (jf  the  empire,  a  per- 
fect whirlwind  of  excitement  should  suddenly 
spring  up  with  no  apparent  cause  over  what  is 
commonly  called  "  tail-cutting."  As  a  rule,  no 
one  knows  how  it  began,  what  occasioned  it,  or 
how  it  may  end.  It  comes  and  goes  as  unexpect- 
edly and  with  as  little  warning  as  the  cyclone  upon 
a  Western  prairie.  In  some  instances,  however,  it 
has  been  willfully  aroused  by  malicious  Chinese  of 
the  educated  class  to  gratify  their  hatred  of  for- 
eigners, and  in  such  cases  care  is  taken,  of  course, 
to  direct  suspicion  against  them  as  the  authors  of 
the  mischief.  More  than  once  in  recent  years  the 
lives  of  unoffending  foreigners  have  been  placed 
in  actual  peril  by  such  absurd  reports. 

In  such  a  fever,  the  entire  mass  of  the  popula- 
tion, the  most  intelligent  as  well  as  the  most  igno- 
rant, go  wild  with  excitement  and  fear.  The  ab- 
surdest  stories  are  circulated  and  believed.  Here 
are  samples,  taken  from  the  actual  experience  of 
the  writer.  Such  a  Chinese  was  walking  along 
the  street  when  his  queue  suddenly  dropped  off 
and  vanished.  No  human  being  was  near  him  at 
the  time.  Such  another  man  put  up  his  hand  to 
coil  his  queue,  and  discovered  that  he  had  none. 
Such  another  experienced  a  sensation  of  cold  in 
the  back  of  his  neck,  and  thus  discovered  that  his 
queue  had  departed.  This  man  fell  into  conver- 
sation with  a  stranger  upon  the  street,  who  sud- 
denly vanished,  and  the  man's  queue  followed. 
Another  glanced  at  a  foreign  child,  when  the  child 


162  THE   REAL    CHINAMAN 

gazed  steadily  at  him,  and  his  queue  at  once 
faded  out  of  sight,  leaving  only  an  odor  of  burnt 
hair. 

These  are  specimens  of  the  stories  told  every- 
where in  times  of  this  excitement,  and  universally 
believed.  Argument  or  appeal  to  common  sense 
are  utterly  useless.  It  is  idle  to  reason  that  hair 
can  only  be  cut  by  shears  or  a  similarly  sharp  in- 
strument, which  must  be  operated  by  human  hands. 
The  Chinese  believe  implicitly  in  magic  arts  and 
evil  spirits,  and,  as  these  specimen  stories  show, 
they  credit  much  if  not  all  of  the  "  tail-cutting" 
to  such  influences.  Indeed,  it  is  wiser  for  foreign- 
ers in  such  periods  of  frenzy  not  to  attempt  argu- 
ment even  with  their  nicest  familiar  Oriental  friends 
or  servants,  but  rather  to  preserve  a  discreet  silence 
upon  the  subject.  One  never  knows  in  such  times 
whether  a  thoughtless  word  upon  the  subject  may 
not  direct  suspicion  against  the  speaker,  nor  what 
the  consequences  of  such  a  word  may  be. 

It  would  naturally  be  expected  that,  in  such 
mental  typhoons,  the  officials  would  concert  meas- 
ures to  suppress  the  excitement  and  reassure  the 
populace.  They  do  nothing  of  the  sort.  In  all 
matters  of  superstition  or  belief  in  magic  they  are 
hardly  more  enlightened  than  those  whom  they 
govern.  I  have  seen,  first  and  last,  at  least  a  dozen 
proclamations,  issued  by  magistrates  of  Peking,  in 
times  of  this  sort  of  excitement,  and  every  one  was 
directly  calculated  to  increase  rather  than  lessen  the 
disturbance  of  the  public  mind.  They  commonly 
began  by  warning  the  people  that  these  were  days 
of  danger,  when  every  person   should   stay  closely 


CIIIXKSE    QUEUES.  1 83 

at  home  and  attend  to  his  own  affairs.  They  ad- 
vised all  to  avoid  strangers,  see  that  their  doors 
and  windows  were  carefully  closed  at  all  hours,  on 
no  account  to  be  out  after  dark,  and  to  look  after 
tlieir  children.  Some  of  them  concluded  by  fur- 
nishing a  sovereign  protection,  a  sort  of  patent- 
niedicine  recipe  for  securing  the  queue  from  harm. 
This  recipe  in  most  cases  was  very  simple.  In  one 
proclamation  it  meiely  directed  that  a  red  and 
yellow  cord  be  braided  in  with  tlie  hair  ;  in  another 
it  prescribed  a  medicine  to  be  taken  internally, 
and  in  another,  which  also  prescribed  a  medicine, 
one  half  was  to  be  swallowed  and  the  other  half 
thrown  upon  the  kitchen  fire. 

One  of  these  prescriptions,  which  I  w^ell  remem- 
ber, was  issued  by  the  mayor  of  Peking  in  January, 
1877.  It  directed  tliat  a  sort  of  monogram,  com- 
posed of  three  Chinese  characters  intertwined  in  a 
certain  manner,  should  be  written  in  b'ack  ink 
upon  three  squares  of  a  fixed  size  of  i\  peculiar 
yellow  paper.  One  of  these  squares  must  be 
burned,  the  ashes  carefully  saved  and  swallowed 
in  a  cup  of  tea  ;  the  second  must  be  worn  braided 
into  the  strands  of  the  queue  ;  and  the  third  must 
be  pasted  upon  the  outside  of  the  door-frame,  ex- 
actly over  the  centre  of  the  door.  Thus  defended, 
the  mayor  assured  his  people  that  they  might  rest 
safely  and  defy  the  malignant  spirits  that  roamed 
about  day  and  night,  seeking  opportunities  to  rob 
the  faithful  Sons  of  I  Ian  cf  their  badges  of  man- 
hood and  nationality.  The  prescription  was  mod- 
estly stjded  "  The  Universal  and  Infallible  Queue 
Protector." 


1 84  THE  REAL    CinXAMA.V. 

It  should  be  added  that  in  none  of  these  "  tail- 
cutting  excitements"  was  there  the  least  tangible 
evidence  that  even  one  Chinese  had  suffered  the 
loss  of  a  single  hair  from  his  head.  Every  man's 
mouth  was  full  of  stories  such  as  have  been  de- 
scribed, the  people  were  utterly  demoralized,  busi- 
ness was  at  a  standstill,  and  yet  not  one  curtailed 
Chinese  could  be  produced.  Those  who,  with 
bated  breath  and  frightened  face,  related  the  vari- 
ous instances,  had  seen  none  of  them,  their  inform- 
ants had  seen  none  ;  and,  in  fact,  in  all  these 
troubles  I  never  saw  a  Chinese  who  had  seen  an- 
other who  had  lost  his  queue  in  any  such  inexplica- 
ble manner.  The  basis  of  every  one  of  the  stories 
was  hearsay  ;  and  each  such  excitement  was  an 
unaccountable  but  dangerous  epidemic  of  super- 
stitious fear. 

During  the  height  of  such  a  fever  in  Peking,  and 
shortly  after  the  mayor  had  issued  his  proclama- 
tion and  prescription,  as  given  above,  I  was  called 
from  bed  early  one  morning  to  see  an  American 
missionary,  who  came  to  report  that  during  the 
preceding  night  a  Chinese,  while  sleeping  in  the 
chapel  under  his  charge,  had  been  deprived  of  his 
queue.  Knowing  well  that,  in  the  excitement  then 
raging,  if  a  rumor  of  tlie  fact  got  abroad  the 
chapel  would  be  destroyed  in  an  hour  by  a  howl- 
ing mob,  and  perhaps  human  lives  be  lost,  the  mis- 
sionary had,  with  great  prudence,  locked  the  suf- 
ferer in  a  room  by  himself,  and  hurried  at  day- 
break to  the  Legiition  for  advice  and  assistance. 
Having  sent  a  hasty  note  to  tlic  military  governor 
of  the  city  asking  for  an  interview  at  a  later  hour 


CIIIXESK    QUKL'ES.  1 85 

in  tlie  day,  giving  no  reason  for  the  request,  but 
tlie  object  being  to  secure,  if  necessary,  a  bod)'  of 
soldiers  to  guard  the  chapel  from  a  mot),  I  went  to 
the  spot  to  investigate  the  affair. 

The  facts  were  very  simple.  It  was  an  actual 
case  of  "  tail-cutting,"  the  first  and  last  that  I  ever 
saw,  except  in  numerous  instances  where  criminals 
had  been  deprived  of  their  queues  under  due  proc- 
ess of  law.  The  despoiled  Chinese  was  a  "  man 
from  the  country,"  who  had  come  to  Peking  to 
study  Christianity,  and  who  had  been  kindly  al- 
lowed by  the  missionary  to  remain  for  a  few  days 
and  nights  with  two  native  Christians  in  a  small 
room  at  the  back  of  the  chapel  building.  As  he 
was  a  stranger,  it  was  at  least  possible  that  he  had 
been  sent  by  malicious  Chinese  to  the  chapel,  and 
having  secured  a  footing  there  under  pretense  of 
interest  in  Christianity,  had  cut  off  his  own  queue, 
hoping  in  this  way  to  raise  a  disturbance  against 
foreigners  ;  but  under  the  closest  questioning  he 
told  a  perfectly  straiglit  and  consistent  story,  and 
this  suspicion  was  abandoned. 

He  had  gone  to  bed  the  evening  before,  in  the 
room  where  I  found  him,  at  nine  o'clock,  and  the 
other  two  men  had  followed  him  shortly  after.  He 
awoke  at  about  two  in  the  morning,  and,  feeling 
queer  about  his  head,  put  up  his  hand  and  found 
his  queue  gone.  Frightened  nearly  out  of  his 
wits,  he  cried  out  and  awoke  his  companions,  who, 
not  less  alarmed  than  he,  lighted  a  candle,  and  the 
three  sat  up  and  trembled  until  nearly  daj'break, 
when  one  of  them  called  the  missionar}'.  On 
going  out   for  this  purpose  he  found   the  missing 


1 86  THE  REAL    CHINAMAN. 

queue  on  the  snow  in   the  yard,  where   it  had  evi- 
dently been  thrown. 

Such  were  the  facts  developed  by  close  ques- 
tions. It  puzzled  me  greatly.  The  two  men  who 
were  in  the  room  through  the  night  with  the  coun- 
tryman were  well  known,  and  above  suspicion. 
They  confirmed  his  statement  so  far  as  they  knew 
anything  about  the  affair.  The  yard  where  the 
queue  was  found  was  surrounded  by  a  high  wall 
which  could  not  be  scaled.  The  doors  and  win- 
dows of  the  room  had  been  carefully  fastened  the 
evening  before,  and  no  one  could  have  entered 
without  the  knowledge  of  the  occupants.  The 
queue  had  been  cut  off.  That  was  evident.  There 
ii  was  in  my  hand.  It  had  been  cut  with  shears, 
about  an  inch  from  the  head,  with  a  single  clean, 
sharp  stroke.  It  was  unusually  thick,  and  must 
have  required  a  strong  wrist,  keen  shears,  and 
great  caution  to  have  severed  it  from  the  head 
without  disturbing  its  owner. 

After  a  long  investigation,  devoid  of  the  least 
result,  I  asked,  as  I  had  many  times  before  : 

"  Was  there  no  person  but  you  three  in  the  room 
at  bedtime  ?" 

"  No." 

Was  there  no  one  else  here  earlier  in  the  even- 
ing ?" 

One  said  "  No,"  but  another,  after  a  moment's 
thought,  said  :  "  Yes,  early  in  the  evening  Ah 
Hsin  [not  his  real  name]  was  here,  but  he  left  be- 
fore we  went  to  bed." 

"  What  was  he  doing  ?" 


CHINESE    QUEUES.  1S7 

"  He  was  fastening  some  foreign  paper  together 
into  a  book." 

"  What  tools  had  he  ?" 

"  Some  twine,  a  needle,  and  -a  pair  of  shears." 

"  Were  there,  or  had  there  been  recently,  another 
pair  of  shears  in  the  room  ?" 

"  No,  not  for  a  long  time." 

"  Did  Ah  Hsin  take  the  shears  away  with  him  ?" 

"Yes." 

Further  questions  brought  out  tlie  facts  that  Ah 
Hsin  did  not  leave  the  room  until  after  the  coun- 
tryman was  in  bed  and  asleep,  and  that  he  sat  at 
his  work  of  bookbinding  in  such  a  position  that 
the  head  of  the  sleeper  was  close  at  his  right  hand, 
while  the  other  two  Chinese  were  at  some  dis- 
tance, on  the  other  side  of  a  table,  busily  engaged 
in  reading.  Under  these  circumstances  nothing 
could  have  been  more  easy  than  for  Ah  Hsin,  with- 
out even  turning  his  body,  to  have  seized  the  queue 
of  the  sleeper  and  cut  it  off  with  his  shears  without 
attracting  the  attention  of  the  others.  If  either  of 
them  chanced  to  look  up  at  the  critical  moment, 
the  table,  being  considerably  higher  than  the  head 
of  the  victim,  would  have  screened  the  operation 
from  his  view. 

Ah  Hsin  had  formerly  been  in  the  service  of  a 
friend.  I  had  known  of  him  as  a  young  Chinese 
scapegrace,  equally  handsome  and  mischievous, 
and  hence  had  little  doubt  that  he  could  explain 
this  tail-cutting  episode  if  he  chose.  The  mission- 
ary was,  therefore,  requested  to  go  in  person  for 
Ah  Hsin,  who  was  employed  in  a  printing-office 
connected  with  the  mission  establishment,  and  to 


1 88  THE   REAL    CHINAMAN. 

bring  him  at  once  before  me,  with  no  hint  as  to  the 
purpose  for  which  he  was  wanted.  Ah  Hsin  soon 
appeared,  bright-faced,  frank,  and  smiling,  and, 
having  made  the  usual  salutation,  calmly  stood 
awaiting  my  pleasure.  Without  prelude  of  any 
sort,  I  asked  him  why  he  had  cut  off  the  country- 
man's queue  the  previous  evening.  He  stoutly  de- 
nied having  done  so,  showed  natural  astonishment 
at  the  fact  that  it  had  been  cut,  and  wondered  who 
could  have  been  guilty  of  the  act.  He  admitted 
having  been  in  the  room,  having  shears,  and  hav- 
ing been  seated  as  the  others  had  described.  Un- 
der close  questioning  he  confessed  that  the  paper 
which  he  had  been  sewing  into  book  form  had  been 
stolen  by  him  from  the  printing-office.  That,  he 
said,  was  a  small  affair,  stealing  a  ream  or  two  of 
paper,  but  to  cut  off  a  Chinese  queue  was  a  very 
serious  matter,  deserving  heavy  punishment,  and 
he  never,  never  could  have  been  guilty  of  such  an 
act. 

Thus  he  answered  all  questions  for  more  than  an 
hour.  It  was  impossible  to  trip  him  at  any  point. 
He  was  more  profoundly  impressed  with  the  grav- 
ity of  the  offense  than  I  was.  Blandishment  and 
persuasion  could  not  move  or  trap  him.  When  I 
assured  him,  for  example,  that  of  course  it  was 
plain  that  he  meant  no  harm,  but  only  used  the 
shears  as  a  boyish  freak,  overcome  by  temptation 
for  a  lark,  when  he  saw  the  sleeping  man's  queue 
hanging  over  the  edge  of  the  bed  so  conveniently, 
he  corrected  me  at  once.  He  was  a  Chinese  him- 
self, and  knew  better  than  to  meddle  with  a  man's 
fpicue,  even  in   sport.     Whoever  cut   that  tail^  cut 


ClflNESE    QUEUES.  189 

it  not  in  mischief.  It  was  a  serious  business.  As- 
surances that  no  harm  should  come  to  him  if  he 
confessed  had  no  effect.  As  he  had  not  done  the 
deed,  how  could  he  confess  ? 

It  is  easy  in  this  way  to  recite  the  general  sub- 
stance of  the  conversation,  and  to  show  its  utter 
failure  ;  but  neither  pen  nor  pencil  could  paint  the 
innocent,  boyish  face,  the  calm,  quiet  eye,  the 
ready,  positive,  but  courteous  tones  of  his  voice, 
and,  in  general,  the  absolute  lack  of  any  trace  of 
guilt.  If  Ah  Hsin  was  guilty,  then  all  signs  fail 
with  the  Chinese,  as  they  sometimes  do.  A  friend, 
who  was  remarkably  successful  in  detecting  Chinese 
thieves,  once  stated  that  his  secret  lay  wholly  in 
suddenly  asking  the  suspected  person  the  question 
why  or  when  he  stole  the  missing  articles,  and  then 
closely  watching  his  throat.  If  he  was  guilty,  he 
inYa.r\a.h\y  s^cHillowcd  h&iore.  making  reply.  But  Ah 
Hsin  did  not  even  swallow. 

At  last,  wearied  and  out  of  patience,  yet  fully 
convinced  that  he  cut  the  queue,  I  said  :  "  Very 
well.  You  deny  the  act.  I  am  none  the  less  cer- 
tain that  you  are  guilty.  I  came  here  and  sent  for 
you,  not  to  get  you  into  trouble,  but  to  help  you 
out  of  it.  I  hiive  no  desire  to  see  you  punished, 
and,  as  I  have  repeatedly  assured  you,  would 
gladly  do  any  possible  thing  to  save  you  from  it. 
You  are  guilty.  You  cut  that  queue.  You  know 
better  than  I  do  what  the  Chinese  officials  will  do 
in  these  days  of  excitement  with  any  person  who 
is  even  suspected  of  tail-cutting.  That  queue  was 
cut  last  evening  in  this  room  with  a  pair  of  shears. 
You  were  in  the  room,  had  the  only  pair  of  shears 


19°  THE  REAL    CHINAMAN: 

in  it,  and,  by  your  own  admission,  they  did  not 
pass  out  of  your  possession  the  entire  evening.  I 
shall  hand  you  over  to  the  Chinese  authorities  with 
a  statement  of  the  facts,  and  leave  them  to  decide, 
as  is  their  duty,  whether  you  are  innocent  or 
guilty." 

Even  this  did  not  move  him.  So,  turning  to  a 
servant  who  had  accompanied  me,  I  directed  him 
to  take  my  card  to  a  police  station  near  at  hand, 
and  ask  that  two  officers  be  sent  to  me  at  once. 
Ah  Hsin  heard  this,  still  he  stood  with  apparent 
unconcern  until  the  servant  was  passing  through 
the  door,  when,  quick  as  a  flash,  his  manner 
changed,  and  he  said  : 

"  You  need  not  do  that.  You  were  quite  cor- 
rect. I  did  cut  off  the  queue  after  the  man  was 
asleep,  and  exactly  as  you  supposed,  and  dropped 
it  on  the  snow  outside  the  door  when  I  went  home. 
I  did  it  to  plague  and  frighten  him,  he  is  such  a 
very  green  countryman." 

Knowing  how  little  mercy  the  boy  would  receive 
for  his  thoughtless  iict  at  the  hands  of  the  native 
authorities,  I  agreed  with  the  missionary  not  to 
report  the  case  to  them,  but  to  make  some  excuse 
for  the  request  iox  an  interview  with  the  military 
governor.  The  missionary  promised,  on  his  part, 
to  send  Ah  Hsin  out  of  the  city  without  an  hour's 
delay,  and  to  keep  the  curtailed  countryman  in 
solitary  confinement  for  the  day  ;  then  he,  too, 
was  to  be  escorted  out  of  town  by  two  discreet 
Chinese  and  sent  home  with  a  small  present.  This 
plan  was  successfully  carried  out,  and  no  hint  of 
the  one  genuine  case  of  tail-cutting  got  abroad. 


CIIJXKSE    QUEUES. 


191 


The  sequel  to  this  incident  will  illustrate  how 
seriously  the  highest  otFicials  in  China  legard  the 
offense  of  tail-cutting.  A  week  later,  Prince  Kung, 
then  Prince  Regent  of  the  empire,  came  to  the 
Legation  with  the  members  of  the  Cabinet  to  make 
a  New  Year's  call.  In  the  course  of  conversation 
he  inquired  what  I  wished  of  the  military  governor 
that  day  when  I  first  asked  to  see  him,  and  then 
withdrew  the  request.  It  appeared  that  they  had 
only  found  him  with  much  difficulty,  and  had  but 
just  notified  him  of  my  appointment  when  it  was 
canceled  by  the  second  note.  In  reply  I  recited 
the  facts  of  the  case,  adding  that  the  queue  was 
cut  off  in  a  mere  boj'ish  freak,  which  it  had  seemed 
best  to  overlook  ;  but  the  prince  failed  to  view  it 
in  that  light.  He  became  much  excited,  said  that 
the  Chinese  boy  knew  well  what  he  was  about 
when  he  cut  off  the  queue,  that  he  had  forfeited 
his  life,  and  insisted  upon  being  furnished  with  his 
name  and  place  of  residence.  Fortunately  I  did 
not  know  either  Ah  Hsin's  family  name  or  where 
he  had  been  sent,  and  hence  was  unable  to  put  the 
authorities  upon  his  trail.  There  is  little  doubt 
that  the  boyish  freak  would  have  cost  him  his  life 
had  he  fallen  into  their  hands  at  that  time. 


CHAPTER   IX. 


CHINESE    COURTS    OF    LAW. 


In  the  centre  of  the  main  en- 
trance to  the  official  residence 
of  every  Chinese  magistrate  is 
a  low  wooden  platform,  about 
ten  feet  square,  carpeted  with 
red  felt.  Upon  this  are  placed 
a  table  and  an  imposing  mag- 
isterial chair,  both  draped  in 
red.  Upon  the  table  are  writ- 
ing materials,  while  on  the  wall  near  at  hand  hang 
whips,  bamboo  rods,  and  other  instruments  of 
punishment.  At  one  side  of  the  platform  are  sus- 
pended a  gong  and  a  bell,  with  the  usual  wooden 
hammer  for  beating  either  of  them. 

This  constitutes  the  primitive  Chinese  hall  of 
justice,  and  is  an  arrangement  as  old  as  the  em- 
pire. While  practically  all  cases  are  tried  within 
walls  and  many  behind  closed  doors,  yet  theoreti- 
cally this  remains  the  court,  public  to  all  who  may 
come  and  open  to  Heaven.  Any  Chinese  subject 
having  a  complaint  against  another  may  come  at 
any  hour  of  the  day  or  night  and  beat  the  gong. 
Thereupon  the  magistrate  is  bound  by  law  to  put 
on  instantly  his  official  robes,  come  forth,  seat  him- 
self in  the  chair  of  judgment,  and   then  and  there. 


CHINESE    COURTS  OF  LAW.  193 

in  the  presence  of  whoever  may  choose  to  be  pres- 
ent, to  hear  and  determine  the  case  without  fear, 
favor,  fee,  or  reward.  This  is  the  Chinese  exem- 
plification of  the  old  saying  that  "  the  eye  of  jus- 
tice never  sleeps."  In  theory,  at  least,  Chinese 
justice  is  speedy,  inexpensive,  and  sure. 

The  judicial  system  of  China  is  probably  the 
oldest  in  tlie  world,  and  appears  to  have  under- 
gone no  serious  changes  in  many  centuries.  It  is 
simple,  and  bears  evidence  of  careful  effort  to  pro- 
tect all  who  have  occasion  to  use  it,  whether  as 
accusing  or  accused,  against  injustice  or  extortion. 
Numerous  checks,  such  as  appeals  to  higher  courts, 
and  a  final  revision  by  the  Emperor  himself,  are 
provided  in  certain  cases.  There  is  one  system  of 
courts,  established  at  an  early  day  in  the  history 
of  the  empire,  especially  intended  for  the  protec- 
tion of  the  very  poor,  and  in  which  no  fees  or  ex- 
penses of  any  sort  could  be  exacted  under  any  ex- 
cuse or  pretext.  The  meanest  beggar  may,  by 
taking  the  prescribed  steps,  be  assured  in  theory 
that  his  cause  will  come  before  His  Imperial  Maj- 
esty in  person,  and  judgment  be  entered  upon  it 
by  nothing  less  august  and  final  than  the  "  ver- 
milion pencil." 

This  last-named  court,  or  system  of  courts,  is 
unique  in  its  organization  and  range  of  duty.  It 
is  known  in  Chinese  as  the  "  Tu  Cha  Yuan,"  or 
"  The  Metropolitan  Department  of  Investigation." 
The  title  is  ordinardy  translated  as  "  The  Cen- 
sorate,"  which  substantially  indicates  its  duties. 
These  are  to  hear  all  judicial  cases  which  may  be 
brought  to  its  notice  absolutely  without  tax,  fee. 


194 


THE   REAL    CHIA'AMAN. 


or  compensation  of  any  sort,  and  to  review,  exam- 
ine, and  criticise  the  conduct  of  all  officials  of  every 
rank,  grade^  or  duty  in  the  empire.  Not  an  indi- 
vidual, no  matter  what  his  position,  is  either  too 
high  or  too  low  to  be  free  from  the  scrutiny  of  the 
officers  of  this  department.  The  Emperor  himself 
is  often  censured  by  them.  When  Kuang  Hsu, 
the  present  occupant  of  the  throne,  was  on  his  way 


I 


ENTRANCE   TO    IMPERIAL    CEMETERY. 


to  attend  the  funeral  of  the  preceding  emperor,  a 
censor  placed  in  his  hands  a  report  protesting 
against  his  accession  to  imperial  power,  and  then, 
to  mark  the  earnestness  of  his  conviction,  took  his 
own  life  in  the  presence  of  the  new  monarch,  who 
was  a  mere  child,  three  years  of  age.  In  187 1  a 
censor  in  Peking  boldly  defied  Prince  Kung,  who 
was  tlicn  at  the  he;id  of  affairs,  and  the  latter  found 


CHiXKSE  couirrs  of  law 


195 


it  more  safe  to  violate  his  own  word,  pledged  to 
the  American  Minister,  than  to  nndertake  the  task 
of  controlling  a  native  official  who  was  very  mnch 
below  him  in  rank. 

The  code  of  laws,  which  dates  back  twenty  cen- 
turies, and  is  revised  frequently,  is,  as  has  been 
pointed  out  in  another  chapter,  upon  the  whole 
wise,  moderate,  and  humane.  It  prescrit)es,  with 
great  minutia;,  various  kinds  and  grades  of  punish- 


APPROACU    TO    MING   TOMBS. 


ment  for  the  varying  circumstances  of  crime.  It 
provides  for  an  increasing  severitv  of  i^unishmcnt 
for  repetitions  of  a  given  offense,  in  mucli  the  same 
manner  as  our  own  laws.  A  large  number  of 
minor  penalties  may  be  legally  coinpromised  by 
the  payment  of  a  fine.  Thus  an  offender  sentenced 
to  receive  a  hundred  blows  may  avoid  the  penalty 
by  the  payment  of  five  ounces  of  silver.  Other 
provisions  are  more  humane  than  would  lie  ex- 
pected.     Thus,  if  any  criminal   under  sentence   of 


196  THE  REAL    CHINAMAN. 

death  has  parents  or  grandparents  who  are  infirm 
or  above  the  age  of  seventy,  and  who  have  no 
other  son  or  grandson  to  care  for  them,  his  case 
must  be  brought  to  the  notice  of  His  Imperial 
Majesty.  Women  who  are  sentenced  to  receive  a 
flogging  must  be  allowed  to  retain  their  under-gar- 
ments  when  the  punishment  is  inflicted,  and  no 
punishment,  except  for  treason  or  rebellion,  can 
be  visited  upon  persons  under  seven  and  over 
ninety  years  of  age.  Some  of  the  provisions  of 
the  code  are  amusing  and  grotesque.  Thus,  as- 
tronomers who  have  been  sentenced  to  banishment 
may  submit  to  a  hundred  blows  instead,  unless 
they  have  been  guilty  of  certain  enumerated  crimes. 
Why  astronomers  should  thus  receive  peculiar 
favor  not  conceded  to  other  people  does  not  ap- 
pear. If  a  son,  at  a  distance  from  home,  enters 
into  a  marriage  contract  in  ignorance  of  an  engage- 
ment which  his  father  may  have  made  for  him  at 
home,  he  must  give  up  his  own  choice,  and  marry 
the  person  chosen  by  his  parents.  An  official  may 
not  marry  the  daughter  of  any  one  living  under 
his  jurisdiction.  Marriage  within  certain  degrees 
of  consanguinity  is  not  only  strictly  forbidden,  but 
persons  of  the  same  surname  who  marry  are  liable 
to  have  the  contract  canceled  and  the  wedding 
presents  confiscated  to  the  government.  At  first 
thought  this  provision  may  appear  to  work  no 
practical  hardship,  but  as  there  are  only  four  hun- 
dred and  eight  surnames  among  the  four  hundred 
millions  of  the  Chinese,  the  law  is  more  likely  to 
interfere  with  matrimonial  engagements  than  in 
other  lands,  where  no  limit  is  fixed  to  family  names. 


i 


CHINESE    COURTS   OE  LAW.  197 

One  provision  of  the  code  might  well  be  copied  in 
the  statutes  of  every  people.  When  a  marriage 
engagement  is  proposed,  it  must  be  made  clear  to 
the  families  of  the  bride  and  bridegroom,  that 
neither  of  them  is  "  infirm,  diseased,  or  over  or 
under  age."  Deception  upon  any  of  these  pcnnts 
is  severely  punished. 

With  a  system  of  laws  on  the  whole  so  moderate 
and  reasonable,  and  an  ample  arrangement  of 
checks  and  precautions  against  injustice,  it  might 
be  expected  that  wrong  would  seldom  go  unpun- 
ished and  innocence  never  fail  of  recognition.  Yet 
the  practical  workings  of  Chinese  courts  of  law 
show  that  bribery,  extortion,  and  cruel  injustice 
are  not  merely  possible,  but  easy  and  common 
under  the  most  elaborate  system  that  can  be  de- 
vised. There  are  no  juries,  and  lawyers  are  un- 
known. Cases  are  decided  not  so  much  by  direct 
reference  to  the  law  as  by  precedents.  This  prac- 
tice has  called  into  existence  a  class  of  unofficial 
hangers-on  about  the  courts  who  are  called  "  search- 
ers." They  have  no  recognized  standing,  have 
been  denounced  again  and  again  by  high  officials, 
and  their  employment  by  magistrates  forbidden  by 
the  Emperor  ;  yet  they  continue  to  exist  and  to 
pursue  their  calling  throughout  the  empire.  It  is 
their  business,  when  any  particular  case  is  to  come 
up  for  adjudication,  to  examine  the  records  and 
find  a  similar  or  parallel  case  which  may  serve  as 
a  model  or  guide  for  the  adjustment  of  that  before 
the  court.  It  is  easily  seen  that  with  records  run- 
ning back  almost  to  the  beginning  of  time,  any 
sort  of  a  precedent  maybe  found  to  suit  the  wishes 


198  THE  REAL    CHI X AM  AX. 

of  the  "  searcher  ;"  and  it  is  just  here  that  bribery, 
extortion,  and  blackmail  are  most  commonly  levied. 
No  matter  whether  the  accused  be  innocent  or 
guilty,  the  searcher  must  be  "  seen"  and  his  favor- 
able report  secured  by  a  liberal  fee.  When  it  is 
added  that  these  harpies  have  no  other  compensa- 
tion than  that  secured  from  persons  before  the 
court,  and  that  they  are  almost  invariably  wealthy, 
the  whole  story  is  told.  It  is  believed  that  a  Chi- 
nese magistrate  seldom  accepts  a  bribe  directly. 
When  he  receives  one,  it  is  by  a  private  commer- 
cial arrangement  with  these  hangers-on  of  his 
court. 

Great  and  dangerous  latitude  is  given  to  Chinese 
magistrates  as  to  the  means  which  they  may  legally 
employ  to  extort  the  truth  from  parties  to  a  case 
or  from  witnesses.  An  oath  is  rarely  administered, 
and  never  relied  upon.  Perjurj^  as  a  crime,  is 
unknown.  The  Chinese  act  upon  the  theory  that, 
if  a  man  will  lie  in  any  case,  no  oath  will  make 
him  truthful.  In  fact,  no  Chinese  judge  expects 
either  party  or  any  witness  to  tell  the  exact  truth. 
This  is  to  be  got  at,  first,  by  examining  all  parties 
separately,  and  by  shrewd  cross-questions  in  case 
the  evidence  is  conflicting,  as  is  invariably  the  case. 
If  this  fails,  the  persons  whose  stories  fail  to  agree 
are  confronted  with  each  other,  and  each  made  to 
repeat  his  evidence  in  the  other's  presence,  the 
judge  carefully  studying  the  countenance  and  gen- 
eral demeanor  of  each,  and  by  these  and  other 
signs  deciding  which  is  telling  the  truth  ;  and  they 
become  very  expert  at  this  practice. 

When  these  modes  fail,  the  magistrate  is  allowed 


CHINESE    COURTS   OF   /.III'.  20 1 

to  order  the  persons  suspected  of  false  testimony 
to  be  beaten  in  order  to  extort  the  truth.  It  is  not 
uncommon  for  a  judge  to  pause  in  the  midst  of  his 
questions,  and  order  the  person  under  examination 
beaten  across  the  mouth  with  a  bamboo  switch 
until  the  blood  Hows.  Then,  after  a  warning  that 
worse  will  come  if  he  persists  in  his  untruths,  the 
examination  continues.  They  may  also  cause  even 
a  witness  to  kneel  for  hours  upon  chains,  to  be  sus- 
pended by  the  tliumbs,  or  to  be  confined  for  a  long 
period  with  little  or  nothing  to  eat  or  drink.  Other 
tortures  still  more  severe  and  not  authorized  by 
law  are  on  rare  occasions  employed. 

Great  importance  is  laid  upon  securing  a  confes- 
sion from  a  person  accused  of  crime.  Tortures 
too  horrible  for  description  are  sometimes  made 
use  of  to  accomplish  this  end,  and  often  the  pris- 
oner confesses  to  a  crime  which  he  never  com- 
mitted, in  order  to  secure  a  short  respite  from  un- 
endurable cruelty.  I  once  saw  three  Chinese,  who 
had  been  accused  of  theft,  urged  to  confession  in 
the  following  manner.  Each  man's  arms  were 
brought  behind  his  back  and  tightly  lashed  to- 
gether at  the  wrists.  A  rope  was  then  fastened  to 
this  lashing,  the  other  end  thrown  over  the  limb 
of  a  tree,  and  the  men  in  this  manner  were  hoisted 
from  the  ground  and  allowed  to  hang  for  three 
hours  in  a  blazing  sun.  When  letdown,  they  were 
insensible.  Their  arms  were  dislocated  at  the 
shoulders,  black,  and  frightfully  swollen.  Brought 
to  consciousness,  they  renewed  their  denials  of 
guilt,  but  on  preparations  being  made  for  a  re- 
newal of  the  torture,  they  were  as  eager  to  confess 


202  THE   REAL    CHIXAMAX. 

as  they  had  been  to  deny  their  guilt.  It  is  need- 
less to  add  that  such  tortures  are  strictly  prohib- 
ited by  law,  or  that  when  subordinate  officials  re- 
port cases  to  the  higher  tribunals,  if  measures  like 
these  have  been  resorted  to  to  procure  an  admis- 
sion of  guilt,  they  invariably  fail  to  report  the  im- 
portant fact. 

It  must  not,  however,  be  inferred  that  such  hor- 
rible scenes  are  the  rule  in  Chinese  trials.  They 
are  exceptional.  The  majority  of  magistrates  are 
upright  and  humane,  even  if  ignorant,  narrow- 
minded,  and  superstitious.  It  is  amusing  and  yet 
not  surprising  to  find  certain  antiquated  and  ab- 
surd methods  practiced  by  them,  which  are  identi- 
cal in  both  idea  and  form  with  those  in  use  in  the 
courts  of  Europe  two  centuries  ago.  In  coroners' 
inquests  and  trials  for  murder  this  is  strikingly 
true.  A  suspected  murderer  is  brought  into  the 
presence  of  the  victim  and  made  to  touch  the  body, 
when,  if  he  is  guilty,  the  wounds  will  bleed  afresh. 
In  inquests  where  poison  is  suspected  as  the  cause 
of  death,  a  silver  needle  is  thrust  into  the  body. 
If  poison  was  administered,  the  needle  on  being 
withdrawn  will  have  a  greenish  color.  The  bones 
are  also  examined  in  cases  of  suspected  poison,  and 
they  are  supposed  to  show  the  presence  of  the 
fatal  drug  by  a  similar  cliange  from  their  natural 
appearance. 

The  administration  of  justice  in  China,  like  the 
entire  governmental  system,  is  based  upon  the  pa- 
rental idea.  The  magistrate  seldom  forgets  that  he 
is  theoretically  the  father  of  the  people  living  under 
his  jurisdiction  ;    and   it  is  not  at  all  unusual  for 


CIILYF.SE    CO  CRTS    OF    /..III'.  203 

him  to  mingle  the  examiiialiun  and  cross-examina- 
tion of  witnesses  or  principals  in  any  given  case 
with  exhortations  and  admonitions  to  tell  the  truth. 
He  will  cajole,  entreat,  threaten,  and  advise  a  re- 
calcitrant perscjn  all  in  one  breath,  quote  Confucius 
to  him,  ask  him  irrelevant  questions,  and  assure 
him  of  his  fatherly  regard,  and  through  it  all 
watch  him  with  the  utmost  keenness,  ready  to 
catch  any  word  that  may  furnish  a  clew  to  what 
he  is,  through  all  this  rigmarole,  in  search  of — the 
truth. 

It  was  once  my  fortune  to  sit  on  the  bench  with 
a  Chinese  magistrate  in  the  trial  of  seven  men  ac- 
cused of  being  the  ringleaders  in  the  attack  of  a 
mob  upon  an  American  citizen.  The  men  were 
coal-miners,  and  had  beaten  the  foreigner  with 
small  rope  mats  well  saturated  with  coal-dust, 
which  they  wore  as  pads  upon  their  shoulders  in 
bringing  lumps  of  coal  out  of  the  pit.  The  coal- 
dust  made  these  mats  as  dangerous  as  sand-bags, 
and  had  they  hit  the  American  a  single  heavy  blow 
upon  the  head,  would  have  killed  him.  There 
was  no  possible  doubt  of  the  guilt  of  the  persons. 
The  attack  was  made  at  uoon  in  the  central  square 
of  the  city,  and  a  hundred  witnesses  could  be 
brought  to  identify  them.  The  examination  was 
conducted  much  as  follows.  After  asking  the 
names  of  each  of  the  accused,  the  magistrate,  a 
venerable  and  pleasant-faced  man  of  seventy  years, 
turned  to  one  of  them  and  said,  in  a  familiar  way  : 

"  You  tell  us  all  about  it  now.  Wliat  did  you 
beat  the  American  for  ?     Tell  us  the  whole  story." 

"  But  I  did  not  beat  him,  your  Excellency,"  said 


204  THE  REAL    CIIIXAMAJV. 

the  man  ;  "  I  wasn't  there.  Besides,  I  am  a  good 
man.  A  thousand  times  ten  thousand  it  is  true 
that  I  never  touched  him." 

"  Oh,  yes  !  We  know  all  about  that,"  rejoined 
the  official,  returning  to  the  charge.  "  Such  a 
good  Son  of  Han  as  you  are  wouldn't  harm  a  baby  ; 
but,  all  the  same,  what  made  you  do  it?  Don't 
you  know  that  Confucius  declares  that  all  men 
within  the  four  seas  are  brethren  ?  Why  should 
you  wish  to  harm  your  brother  ?  Of  course  we 
know  you  did  not  do  it  ;  were,  in  fact,  in  bed  and 
asleep  when  the  deed  was  done.  At  the  same  time 
we  know  that  you  did  do  it,  and  it  will  save  us  a 
lot  of  bother  if  you  confess.  Of  course  you  did 
not  mean  any  harm  ;  we  are  sure  of  that.  You 
wanted  a  little  fun,  and  had  heard  some  talk  about 
the  streets  that  if  some  one  would  only  frighten 
the  foreigner,  or  give  him  a  drubbing,  he  would 
leave  town  and  never  return  ;  and  so  you  thought 
you  would  try  it.  Certainly  you  were  not  there, 
but  you  beat  him  just  the  same  as  though  you 
were.  Now,  look  at  this  gentleman  on  the  bench 
here  with  me.  He  has  come  all  the  distance  from 
Peking  to  attend  to  this  business.  He  is  a  United 
States  officer,  and  I  shall  punish  you  exactly  as  he 
desires.  He  has  found  out  all  about  it,  gave  me 
your  name,  and  asked  me  to  have  you  arrested  ; 
but  you  can  see  by  his  face  that  he  is  good-natured. 
You  tell  us  all  about  it,  and  he  will  let  you  off 
easily.  Besides,  he  is  in  a  hurry  to  get  back  to 
Peking,  and  has  promised  that  if  we  finish  this 
business  to-day  he  will  dine  with  me  to-morrow. 
You  would  not  put  him  to  delay  and  inconvenience, 


CIIIXKSE    COCA'VS   OF   /..IIT.      .  205 

now,  would    you?      lie   knows  all   about   it.      Meet 
him  half-way,  now,  and  confess." 

Thus  the  garrulous  old  man  ran  on  for  more 
than  an  hour,  (juizzing,  bantering,  and  persuading 
the  accused,  who,  whenever  an  opening  gave  him 
chance  to  be  heard,  reiteiated  his  innocence,  but 
in  tones  noticeably  grcnviiig  fainter  and  less  posi- 
tive. At  last  he  said  :  "  IJut  I  did  not  hit  him  as 
hard  as  some  of  the  others  did."  Quick  as  a  flash 
the  magistrate  retorted  :  "  You  did  hit  him,  then  ? 
Come,  now,  tell  us  about  it."  And  then  the  pris- 
oner, with  his  head  hanging  down  and  with  the  air  of 
a  school-boy  caught  sticking  pins  into  the  master's 
chair,  said  :  "  Well,  if  I  must,  I  must.  Perhaps 
I  did  give  him  a  shove." 

"  That  is  right,"  said  the  judge,  "  we  knew  you 
did  ;  but  it  is  always  right  to  confess."  Then 
turning  to  me,  he  asked  :  "  What  punishment  shall 
I  give  this  man  ?"  I  named  what  seemed  a  proper 
penalty,  and  sentence  was  at  once  given.  The 
other  prisoners  admitted  at  once  their  share  in  the 
offense,  and  the  remainder  of  the  trial  did  not 
occupy  ten  minutes. 

A  member  of  the  Prison  Reform  Society  would, 
undoubtedly,  be  shocked  beyond  expression  at 
what  he  might  see  in  the  best  prison  within  the 
limits  of  the  Chinese  Empire.  And  they  are  loath- 
some, horrible  dungeons,  often  the  scenes  of  cruelty 
and  barbarism  too  fearful  for  description  ;  yet  two 
important  facts  must  be  kept  in  mind  regarding 
them.  In  the  first  place,  any  prison,  in  order  to 
serve  the  purpose  of  its  establishment,  must  be  an^ 
object  of  terror  to  the  lower  and  criminal  classes 


2o6  THE  REAL    CHI X AM  A. Y. 

in  the  country  where  it  is  located.  Residence 
within  its  walls  must  mean  actual  suffering  and 
hardship  ;  and  any  person  who  is  at  all  familiar 
with  the  manner  in  which  the  poorer  classes  of 
the  Chinese  live  in  their  own  homes,  will  at  once 
realize  the  fact  that  a  prison  in  that  land  must, 
indeed,  be  a  horrible  place  if  it  is  to  have  any  re- 
straining influence.  The  fact  is,  that  if  the  worst 
prison  in  the  United  States  were  duplicated  any- 
where in  the  Chinese  Empire,  at  least  one  half  the 
population  entitled  to  accommodations  in  it  would 
hasten  to  commit  such  crimes  as  would  entitle  them 
to  a  cell,  and  would  exercise  anxious  care  that  the 
offense  should  be  of  such  a  nature  as  to  secure  to 
them  the  privileges  of  a  long  residence  in  it. 

In  the  second  place,  imprisonment  is  not  a  legal 
punishment  for  crime  in  China.  Prisons  are  merely 
houses  of  detention  for  witnesses,  persons  accused 
of  offense  against  the  laws  of  the  empire,  and  crim- 
inals under  sentence,  but  awaiting  the  infliction  of 
the  prescribed  penalty.  No  such  thing  is  known 
in  Chinese  courts  as  a  sentence  to  a  term  of  im- 
prisonment. This  fact  renders  the  horrors  and  in- 
famous cruelties  of  these  prisons  more  inexcusal:)le, 
since  they  are  perpetrated  upon  persons  charged 
with  no  offense,  such  as  witnesses  and  other  per- 
sons accused  but  innocent  ;  and  there  are  few  con- 
ceivable horrors  that  have  failed  to  be  realized  in 
these  houses  of  death.  The  native  who  wrote  the 
Chinese  word  for  "  hell"  upon  the  door  of  a  Peking 
prison  employed  only  a  very  moderate  term  of 
description. 

There  are  five  forms  of  piinishrnent   recognized 


CIJINESE    COURTS   OF  LAW.  207 

in  Chinese  law.  These  are  flojrojincr,  wearing  tlie 
"kang,"  branding,  banishment,  and  death.  Of 
these  only  the  second  needs  a  description.  The 
kang,  as  prescribed  in  the  penal  code,  is  "  a  square 
frame  of  dry  wood,  three  feet  long,  two  feet  nine 
inches  wide,  and  weighing  in  ordinary  cases  thirty- 
three  pounds."  Its  weight  may  be  increased,  in 
proportion  to  the  gravity  of  the  offense,  up  to  one 
hundred  and  twenty-five  pounds.  It  is  made  in 
two  parts,  which  are  hinged  together  at  one  side 
and  provided  with  a  lock  at  the  other.  In  the 
centre  is  cut  a  circular  opening  the  size  of  a  per- 
son's neck.  Its  manner  of  use  is  apparent.  It  is 
opened,  adjusted  about  the  neck  of  the  person  con- 
demned to  wear  it,  and  then  closed  and  locked. 
A  strip  of  paper  is  pasted  on  either  side  of  the  head 
of  the  wearer.  One  states  his  name,  age,  and 
place  of  residence  ;  the  other,  his  crime  and  the 
number  of  days  he  is  to  wear  this  unwholesome 
collar.  It  cannot  be  removed,  night  or  day,  dur- 
ing the  prescribed  term.  The  wearer  cannot  reach 
his  mouth,  and  hence  must  be  fed  by  others.  He 
is  daily  led  about  the  streets,  and  at  night  locked 
in  prison.  lie  cannot  lie  down,  but  must  sleep  in 
an  upright  position. 

There  are  three  forms  of  inflicting  the  death 
penalty.  That  considered  least  disgraceful  is  by 
strangulation  ;  ne.xt  is  decapitation  ;  last  and  most 
degrading  is  by  slicing,  in  whicli  the  victim  is 
slowly  cut  in  pieces.  This  last  is  only  inflicted  as 
a  punishment  for  high  treason  and  for  that  gravest 
of  all  crimes  according  to  the  Chinese  idea  of  the 
sacredness  of  the   parental   relation,  for  the  crime 


2o8  THE  REAL    CHIXAMAN. 

of  murder  of  parent  or  grandparent.  Strangula- 
tion is  performed  by  slipping  a  rope  loosely  about 
the  victim's  neck,  a  stick  is  thrust  within  it  at  the 
back  of  the  head,  and  the  executioner  twists  this 
until  death  ensues.  Decapitation  is  effected  by  a 
heavy  two-handed  sword.  The  criminal  is  placed 
upon  his  knees,  his  hands  being  lashed  together 
behind  his  back  ;  his  head  is  drawn  forward,  and  a 
single  blow  given  upon  the  back  of  the  neck  severs 
the  head  from  the  body. 

As  Confucius  taught  that  it  was  the  first  duty  of 
every  person  to  return  his  body  to  his  ancestors  as 
complete  in  all  its  members  as  when  he  received  it 
from  them,  large  sums  of  money  are  sometimes 
paid  by  the  friends  of  decapitated  criminals  for  the 
privilege  of  sewing  the  head  upon  the  body  before 
burial.  While  this  privilege  can  be  secured,  it  is 
always  accompanied  with  one  condition.  The  head 
must  be  reversed — that  is,  sewn  on  back  side  fore- 
most. It  may  be  said,  in  passing,  that  tliis  doc- 
trine of  Confucius  leads  many  Chinese  to  suffer 
death  rather  than  to  consent  to  the  loss  of  any  part 
of  the  body  by  a  surgical  operation. 

A  peculiar  form  of  favor  is  sometimes  shown  to 
high  officials,  and  especially  to  members  of  the 
imperial  family,  who  may  have  been  condemned  to 
the  death  penalty.  Suicide  being  considered  less 
disgraceful  than  any  form  of  death  at  the  hands  of 
the  public  executioner,  the  victim  receives  a  hand- 
some lacquer  box  wrapped  in  silk  of  the  color 
sacred  to  the  Emperor.  Upon  opening  the  box  a 
white  silken  cord  is  found,  neatly  coiled,  lying 
within.     This   is   a   silent  l)ut  stern   suggestion  to 


CHINESE    COURTS   OE  LAW.  209 

the  recipient  to  take  his  own  life  by  means  of  the 
rope  thus  provided.  If  he  fails  to  act  upon  the 
hint  within  twenty-four  hours,  the  public  execu- 
tioner claims  him. 

The  foreign  observer  in  a  Chinese  court  of  law 
remarks,  first,  its  total  unlikeness  to  anything  in 
foreign  lands.  The  only  person  seated  is  the  mag- 
istrate. Officers  of  the  court  and  all  spectators  are 
required  to  stand.  Prisoners  and  witnesses  must 
be  upon  their  hands  and  knees,  and  remain  there 
so  long  as  they  are  in  the  presence  of  the  court. 
This  rule  sometimes  gives  rise  to  awkward  and  yet 
amusing  controversies. 

In  the  winter  of  1873  two  American  residents  of 
Peking  became  involved  in  a  difficulty  with  a 
Chinese  contractor,  who,  having  secured  in  ad- 
vance a  considerable  sum  of  money,  refused  to 
complete  a  building  according  to  agreement.  As 
a  result  of  correspondence  between  the  United 
States  Legation  and  the  Foreign  Office,  the  matter 
was  referred  to  a  member  of  the  latter  body  and 
myself  for  adjustment.  The  contractor  and  the 
two  Americans  having  been  summoned  to  appear 
before  us,  a  grave  question  arose  at  once  as  to  the 
position  to  be  taken  by  these  parties  while  in  court. 
As  the  entire  proceeding  was  informal,  I  proposed 
that  they  should  come  in  and  sit  down.  My  Chi- 
nese colleague  was  horrified  at  the  suggestion.  He 
should  require  the  Chinese  to  get  upon  his  hands 
and  knees,  and  as  all  parties  manifestly  ought  to 
receive  the  same  treatment,  the  Americans  must 
assume  the  same  attitude.  Where  was  the  dig- 
nity of  the  court,  if  sup])liants   could  swagger  into 


2IO  THE  REAL    CHINAMAN. 

its  presence  and  be  treated  as  its  equals  ?  He 
would  be  laughed  and  ridiculed  into  retirement 
if  he  allowed  a  Chinese  to  sit  in  court,  and  if 
Americans  were  allowed  that  privilege  he  should 
decline  to  go  on  with  the  case.  1  was  so  much 
amused  at  the  idea  of  requiring  two  free  American 
citizens,  both  my  seniors,  and  one  gray-headed, 
and  at  the  brilliant  success  I  should  achieve  if  I 
made  such  a  preposterous  demand  upon  them, 
that  I  found  some  difficulty  in  replying  connectedly 
to  the  argument  of  my  Chinese  associate.  How- 
ever, I  managed  to  say  that  no  such  custom  was 
known  in  America,  where  the  worst  criminal  was 
only  required  to  stand  when  addressed  by  his 
judges  ;  that  what  he  insisted  upon  was  by  us 
regarded  as  degrading,  and  could  not  be  considered 
for  a  moment. 

After  a  long  and  heated  discussion  it  was  finally 
agreed  that  each  officer  should  follow  the  practice 
in  vogue  in  his  own  country — that  is  to  say,  he 
should  r-equire  the  Chinese  contractor  to  kneel, 
and  I  should  request  my  fellow-citizens  to  I'emain 
standing  while  in  our  presence  ;  and  the  case  was 
heard  and  satisfactorily  adjusted  upon  that  basis. 

A  similar  l)ut  far  more  serious  case  arose  at 
Foochow  in  1877.  It  became  my  duty,  in  con- 
junction with  the  Chief  Justice  of  the  Supreme 
Court  of  the  province,  to  examine  a  large  number 
of  Chinese  witnesses  in  a  case  of  bribery.  Near 
the  close  of  the  investigation  it  appeared  important 
to  have  the  evidence  of  a  Chinese  subject,  who 
was  an  officer  in  the  United  States  Consulate,  and 
held  a  letter  of  appointment  from  the  Secretary  of 


CHI X USE    COURJ-S   OF  LAW.  211 

State  at  Washington.  In  tliis  peculiar  position  lie 
was  not  amenable  to  Chinese  law  except  by  our 
consent,  and  could  only  be  summoned  by  me.  At 
the  request  of  the  Chief  Justice  I  agreed  to  pro- 
duce him,  but  with  the  express  condition  that  he 
should  be  treated  like  an  American  witness.  This 
was  distinctly  agreed  to,  and  the  next  day  this  wit- 
ness appeared. 

As  soon  as  he  came  into  court  the  Chief  Justice 
called  out  :  "  Get  down  upon  your  hands  and 
knees." 

"  I  beg  your  pardon,"  said  I,  "  but  this  witness 
was  not  to  be  required  to  kneel." 

"  I  don't  care  anything  about  that,"  replied  the 
Chief  Justice  ;  "he  is  Chinese,  and  must  obey 
Chinese  law.      Kneel  down." 

"  You  are  violating  a  positive  promise,"  said  I  ; 
"  the  witness  shall  not  kneel." 

"  Kneel  down,"  said  the  Justice. 

"  Stand  up,"  said  I. 

"  Get  down  upon  your  knees,"  screamed  the 
Justice. 

"  Leave  the  room,"  said  I. 

The  frightened  and  bewildered  witness  obeyed 
me,  and  fairly  ran  from  the  room.  Much  sharp 
talk  followed,  the  result  of  wdiich  was  that  the 
Chief  Justice  apologized,  whereupon  the  witness 
was  recalled  and  examined  standing. 

This  case  illustrated  the  extreme  point  to  which 
injustice  and  brutality  can  go  in  a  Chinese  court 
of  law.  The  only  parties  guilty  of  wrongdoing 
were  a  Chinese  merchant  and  the  interpreter  to 
the  United  States  Consulate.     The  former  was  not 


2 12  TTtE   I-;EAL    CHINAMaN. 

placed  on  trial  at  all.  He  had  arranged  matters 
to  his  own  satisfaction  with  the  Chinese  authori- 
ties, and  appeared  in  court  as  the  friend  and  con- 
fidential adviser  of  the  Chief  Justice  !  The  inter- 
preter, though  Chinese  by  birth,  was  a  naturalized 
British  subject,  and  hence  equally  free  from  all 
responsibility  to  either  American  or  Chinese  law. 
He  was  summarily  discharged  from  office,  but  be- 
yond that  could  not  be  touched. 

The  only  sufferers  were  some  thirty  ignorant  na- 
tive fishermen,  all  innocent  of  any  offense  against 
the  law,  at  least  so  far  as  the  evidence  showed.  It 
was  in  August,  the  heat  intense,  and  the  city  fairly 
reeking  with  cholera,  yet  these  men  had  been 
thrown  into  a  prison  indescribable  in  its  horrors, 
and  beaten,  tortured,  and  starved  for  months  be- 
fore they  were  brought  into  court.  They  all  bore 
marks  of  fearful  suffering,  and  of  the  thirty,  only 
twenty-three  lived  to  give  evidence  at  the  trial. 
One  of  these  was  brought  into  court  like  a  log  by 
four  constables,  who  endeavored  to  prop  him  up 
upon  his  hands  and  knees  ;  but  he  was  so  nearly 
dead  that  he  fell  over  on  his  face,  and  was  finally 
examined  lying  at  full  length  upon  the  floor.  He 
could  speak  only  in  a  whisper,  and  a  word  or  two 
at  a  time. 

During  the  examination  I  noticed  him  feebly 
fumbling  in  the  bosom  of  his  tattered  garment, 
and  presently  the  end  of  a  bit  of  folded  paper 
showed  itself  between  his  fingers.  An  attendant 
of  the  Chief  Justice  sprang  at  once  to  seize  it,  but 
my  attendant,  to  whom  I  had  cjuietly  spoken,  was 
quicker,  and  secured  it.     The  paper  jiroved  to  be 


ClIIXESE    cor  NTS   OF  LA  IF. 


213 


a  petition  to  me  for  help  and  protection.  It  de- 
tailed a  record  of  hideous  torture,  from  the  effects 
of  which  seven  men  had  died,  though  no  crime 
was  proved  or  charged  even  against  any  one  of 
them.  But,  so  far  as  the  Chinese  parties  in  the 
case  were  concerned,  I  was  absolutely  powerless, 
and  could  oidy  look  on  with  disgust  and  horror  at 
the  fearful  injustice  disclosed.  Any  attempt  at 
interference  would  have  been  resented,  and  would 
have  reacted  upon  the  poor  wretches  who  appealed 
for  help.  It  is  but  just  to  say  that  in  many  years 
of  varied  experience  in  Chinese  courts,  this  was 
the  only  instance  of  outrageous  brutality  that  came 
within  my  knowledge. 

One  ancient  rule  of  Chinese  court  procedure, 
not  now  generally  followed,  is  amusing,  and  yet 
contains  more  grains  of  wisdom  than  at  first 
thought  may  appear.  It  provided  that  whenever 
two  litigants  appeared  before  a  magistrate,  he 
should,  at  the  very  outset,  and  prior  to  hearing 
any  statement  of  the  case  at  issue  or  examining 
either  of  the  parties,  order  each,  with  absolute  im- 
partiality, "  to  be  flogged  witli  thirty  blows  of  the 
small  bamboo."  The  purpose  was  to  warn  tliem 
not  to  rush  lightly  into  litigation,  or  trouble  the 
magistrate  without  grave  cause. 


CHAPTER   X. 


OFFICIALS    AND    PEOPLE. 


The  relationship  existing  between  the 
Chinese  and  their  local  authorities  fur- 
nishes a  most  curious,  interesting,  and 
perplexing  study.  It  presents  many  ap- 
parent and  startling  contradictions,  and 
really  exhibits  a  new  and  distinct  phase 
of  the  national  character.  No  man  is 
more  cautious,  shrewd,  and  exact  in  his 
business  affairs  than  the  average  Chinese 
merchant.  He  knows  his  own,  and  ex- 
<,rj  acts  it  down  to  the  last  fraction.  He  will 
'  argue  and  quarrel  with  a  business  associ- 

ate for  half  a  day  over  the  hundredth  part  of  a  cent, 
and  year  after  year  readily  and  cheerfully  pay  taxes 
in  a  dozen  different  forms  to  the  collector,  knowing 
Avell  that  in  each  item  the  amount  which  he  pays 
is  very  considerably  larger  than  the  law  demands. 
He  will  submit  to  other  forms  of  official  injustice 
without  protest  or  murmur,  and  come  to  blows 
with  a  neighbor  or  lifelong  friend  over  some  trivial 
breach  of  etiquette  which,  in  his  opinion,  affects 
his  dignity  or  honor.  I  have  known  two  brothers 
to  quarrel  bitterly  because  one  called  the  other  by 
his  given  name  instead  of  addressing  him  as  "  Ven- 
erable Elder  Brother,"  and  each  of  them  had  been 


OFFICIALS  AXn   PEOPl.F.  215 

the  victim  of  officiiil  cruelty  and  injustice  without 
thouglit  of  comphiint. 

This  peculiarity  cannot  be  explained  by  the  as- 
sumption that  the  people  are  either  ignorant  of  or 
indifferent  to  their  rights.  Nor  are  they  stolid 
and  heedless,  lacking  nerves,  as  some  have  as- 
serted. Nor,  again,  is  it  generally  fear  of  the 
authorities,  dread  cjf  punishment,  which  leads  them 
to  submit.  They  speak  of  the  Emperor,  it  is  true, 
with  bated  breath  ;  but  no  such  reserve  affects  their 
ideas  or  their  speech  in  regard  to  the  local  authori- 
ties. They  are  very  democratic  in  their  criticisms 
of  them,  realize  that  they  all  are  of  the  people,  like 
themselves,  and  are  quite  free  with  their  praise  or 
censure.  They  are  very  fond  of  slang  names,  and 
generally  dub  each  official  by  such  as  in  their  opinion 
fits  some  peculiarity  of  speech,  appearance,  or  con- 
duct. Even  the  very  highest  officials  are  not  ex- 
empt from  these  pet  names.  Prince  Kung  is  in- 
differently called  by  the  people  qf  Peking  "  Head 
Clerk  Number  6,"  because  he  was  at  the  head  of 
the  government  and  the  sixth  son  of  a  former  Em- 
peror, or  "  Devil  Number  6,"  because  he  was  sup- 
posed to  be  friendly  toward  foreigners,  for  whom 
"  Devil"  is  the  ordinary  slang  name.  A  certain 
member  of  the  Cabinet  was  practically  never 
spoken  of  by  his  proper  name  or  title,  but  invari- 
ably by  the  Chinese  name  for  the  measuring-worm, 
with  which  every  one  is  familiar  ;  and  on  one  occa- 
sion a  member  of  the  Privy  Council  spoke  to  me 
of  the  Emperor  as  "  our  Boss." 

With  all  his  superstitious  notions,  fads,  and  fan- 
cies, the  Chinese  is  essentially  a  practical  man  of 


2l6  THE   REAL    CHI  X AM  AX. 

business.  He  indulges  little  in  sentiment.  He  is 
more  of  a  philosopher  than  an  enthusiast,  and  sel- 
dom enters  upon  a  path  to  which  the  end  is  invisi- 
ble. This  element  in  his  character  has,  undoubt- 
edly, much  to  do  with  his  quiet  submission  to  real 
or  fancied  injustice.  He  will  not  revolt  against 
any  moderate  extortion  until  fully  convinced  that 
such  action  will  pay.  If,  in  his  judgment,  it  will 
cost  him  more  to  secure  his  rights  than  the  com- 
mercial value  of  those  rights,  it  is  idle  to  appeal  to 
him.  He  will  not  move.  He  knows  by  experience 
or  observation  the  worry,  expense,  and  possible 
danger  of  active  opposition  to  the  local  authori- 
ties, and  prefers  to  bear  the  ills  that  he  sees  rather 
than  fly  to  those  he  knows  not. 

Another  important  factor  in  the  question  needs 
notice.  The  nominal  salaries  of  Chinese  officials 
is  notoriously  inadequate.  In  the  majority  of  cases 
the  sum  specified  as  compensation  is  not  enough 
to  provide  the  underlings,  clerks,  and  other  sub- 
ordinates which  the  magistrate  is  not  only  obliged 
to  have,  but  also  to  pay.  When  we  bear  in  mind 
that  a  distinguished  Secretary  of  State  at  Washing- 
ton paid  his  entire  official  salar)--  to  his  butler,  and 
remember  that  in  few  or  none  of  our  diplomatic 
establishments  in  Europe  is  the  salary  of  a  Secre- 
tary of  Legation  sufficient  to  pay  the  rent  of  a  de- 
cent house  in  a  decent  locality,  we  can  appreciate 
the  difficulties  under  which  Chinese  officials  labor 
in  this  regard.  The  government  so  far  recognizes 
this  fact  as  to  make  to  each  official  an  allowance 
from  the  "anti-extortion  fund."  Tliis  allowance 
is,  in  some  instances,  as  mucli  in  amount  as  twenty 


THE    GREAT   WALL. 


OFFICIALS  AND  P  FOP  IF.  219 

or  twenty-five  times  the  salary,  and  still  both  com- 
bined are  not  sufficient  to  support  the  official  with 
a  decent  show  of  dignity. 

This  fact  is  universally  known  and  recognized. 
From  it  has  sprung  the  idea  commonly  accepted, 
that  every  official  has  a  right  to  receive  a  fair 
amount  of  extra  compensation  for  every  service 
rendered  to  the  people.  If  they  trouble  him  with 
legal  cases,  he  has  a  right  to  expect  pay  for  it.  If 
he  collects  the  taxes,  it  is  only  fair  that  he  should 
receive  and  reserve  a  commission  for  himself.  His 
salary  is  a  merely  nominal  affair.  He  looks  to  the 
residents  within  his  jurisdiction  for  his  support. 
The  validity  of  such  a  claim  is  admitted  in  every 
district  in  the  empire,  and  no  complaint  is  ever 
made  against  it  unless  the  sum  demanded  is  ex- 
orbitant in  amount,  or  exacted  for  services  not 
properly  rendered.  To  a  Western  mind  the  evils  of 
such  a  system  are  far  too  plain  to  need  comment 
or  explanation  ;  yet  a  Chinese  would  fail  to  see 
any  approach  to  bribery  or  corruption  in  it,  and 
stoutly  defend  the  practice  as  only  reasonable  and 
business-like. 

A  modification  of  this  plan  is  in  force  between 
officials  of  various  grades,  from  the  lowest  even  to 
those  about  the  very  presence  of  the  Emperor.  A 
titled  Chinese,  who  represented  his  government 
for  many  years  with  distinguished  ability  abroad, 
once  told  me  that  cm  tlie  occasion  of  his  first  call 
in  Peking  upon  one  of  the  members  of  the  im- 
perial family,  his  attLMidant  carried  a  present  of 
one  hundred  ounces  of  silver,  which  was  delivered 
to  the  officer  on  duty  at  the  door  where  the  call 


2  20  THE   REAL    CHLVAMAy. 

was  made,  and  that  on  each  subsequent  visit  half 
that  sum  was  taken.  He  added  that  there  was  a 
regular  scale  of  "  presents,"  graded  according  to 
the  rank  of  the  visitor  upon  him  of  princely  blood, 
and  that  what  he  had  taken  was  the  amount  fixed 
for  persons  of  his  rank.  Another  official,  upon  his 
return  from  a  post  of  duty,  applied  to  the  Court 
Chamberlain  for  the  customary  audience  with  the 
Emperor,  and  was  informed  that  the  usual  present 
for  persons  of  his  rank  was  five  thousand  ounces 
of  silver.  He  demurred  at  the  amount,  and  offered 
one  half.  This  being  refused,  he  withdrew  his  re- 
quest for  audience,  although  by  this  course,  as  he 
well  knew,  further  official  employment  was  ren- 
dered impossible.  Being  a  strictly  honest  servant 
of  the  State — and  there  are  many  such  in  China — 
he  had  not  and  could  not  procure  so  large  a  sum. 
A  leading  jeweler  of  Peking,  on  one  occasion, 
showed  me  a  hundred  satin-lined  and  richly  lac- 
quered trays,  each  divided  into  ten  compartments, 
each  compartment  fitted  to  receive  a  block  of  silver 
bullion  weighing  ten  ounces.  They  were  being 
prepared  and  were  to  be  filled  upon  the  order  of  a 
certain  high  official,  who  proposed  to  send  a  pres- 
ent of  ten  thousand  ounces  of  silver  in  this  elegant 
form  to  one  of  the  princes. 

One  phase  of  this  system  of  giving  and  receiving 
gifts  is  not  without  a  certain  redeeming  feature. 
It  has  a  practical  value  in  enforcing  the  main- 
tenance of  peace  and  order.  Under  Chinese  law 
tlieri^  is  no  i)r()vision  for  the  infliction  of  a  fine  in 
punishment  for  any  class  of  offenses,  tliough  there 
are  certain  lesser  penalties  which  the  law  allows  to 


OFFICIALS  AND  PEOPLE.  221 

be  commuted  by  payment  of  a  specified  sum  ;  and 
there  is  a  large  number  of  cases  which  are  quietly 
condoned  upon  receipt  of  an  amount  of  money 
generally  in  close  approximation  to  the  ability  of 
the  offender  to  pay.  Probably  none  of  this  money 
finds  its  way  into  the  public  treasury,  though  cases 
have  been  known  in  which  it  was  expended  upon 
some  much-needed  public  improvement  ;  but  there 
is  a  generally  recognized  class  of  fines  or  money 
penalties  levied  upon  subordinate  officials  by  their 
superiors  for  failure  or  neglect  of  duty,  in  case  of 
any  complaints  being  made  against  them,  and,  in 
general,  for  any  bother  or  trouble  to  those  above 
them  for  which  they  are  responsible. 

Whatever  may  be  said  of  the  abstract  honesty  of 
such  a  system,  it  cannot  be  doubted  that  the  direct 
result  is  to  make  those  who  are  liable  to  its  penalties 
both  vigilant  in  the  maintenance  of  order  and  cau- 
tious in  their  exactions  from  the  people.  If  a  dis- 
trict magistrate  understands — and  he  does — that 
any  complaint  of  extortion  made  against  him  will  be 
at  once  followed  by  a  demand,  from  the  governor 
of  the  province,  that  he  "  divide"  with  him,  he 
will  be  less  shrewd  than  the  average  Chinese  if  he 
fails  to  guide  his  course  by  the  plain  reasoning 
that  it  is  better  to  exact  two  thirds  of  a  given  sum 
and  retain  it  all,  than  to  collect  the  whole  and  be 
obliged  to  share  half  or  more  of  it  with  those  above 
him.  In  a  similar  way,  any  remissness  in  official 
duty  sufficiently  grave  to  provoke  complaint  is 
certain  to  be  expensive  to  the  offending  official, 
even  in  cases  where  the  complaint  is  really  trivial 
or  not  well   founded.      A   single   illustration    will 


22  2  THE   REAL    CHIXAMAN. 

show  what  is  meant.  I  once  had  occasion  to  re- 
port a  case  of  theft  to  the  police  magistrate  near 
the  United  States  Legation  in  Peking.  The  bur- 
glar had  entered  the  rooms  of  the  Chinese  copyist 
employed  in  the  Legation,  and  stolen  a  few  silver 
ornaments  worth  not  more  than  twelve  or  fifteen 
dollars.  Liberal  promises  were  made  by  the  mag- 
istrate, but  nothing  was  accomplished,  and  the 
affair  passed  out  of  sight.  Three  months  later  a 
thief  entered  my  own  house,  and  escaped  with 
property  of  more  value.  The  same  magistrate 
was  sent  for,  and  under  the  pressure  of  threats  of 
being  reported  to  the  military  governor  of  the 
city,  he  secured  the  thief  and  every  stolen  article 
within  twenty  hours  of  the  robbery.  Some  weeks 
later  the  magistrate  asked  for  an  interview,  and 
upon  being  admitted,  placed  upon  my  desk  the 
silver  ornaments  stolen  from  the  copyist,  not  one 
being  missing.  I  expressed  my  surprise  and  grati- 
fication, whereupon  the  following  conversation 
took  place  : 

"  They  have  made  me  a  great  deal  of  trouble 
and  cost  me  much  money.  If  you  had  only  warned 
me  before  you  complained  to  the  General  of  the 
Nine  Gates  (the  military  governor),  I  would  have 
recovered  them  for  you  and  saved  the  expense." 

"  But  I  made  no  complaint  to  the  governor  about 
this  case." 

"  You  must  have  done  so,  since  he  knew  all 
about  it." 

"  No.  I  never  laid  a  complaint  against  you  be- 
fore him  about  this  or  any  other  case.  I  warned 
you  that  I  would  do  so  if  you  did  not  act  promptly 


OFFICIALS  AXD   rilOPLE.  223 

in  securing  the  thief  who  entered  my  own  house  ; 
but  your  course  was  so  satisfactory  in  that  affair, 
and  the  vahie  of  these  articles  so  trivial,  that  I  de- 
cided not  to  press  the  matter  ;  and,  in  fact,  had 
forgotten  all  about  it." 

"  But  did  you  say  nothing  to  the  General  of  the 
Nine  Gates  about  this  theft  ?" 

"  Only  indirectly.  Of  course  I  was  obliged  to 
see  him  a  number  of  times  regarding  the  punish- 
ment of  the  other  thief  whom  you  arrested.  In 
the  course  of  conversation  I  praised  you  for  your 
prompt  and  satisfactory  course,  wiiich,  to  be  en- 
tirely frank,  I  told  him  was  surprising  as  well  as 
agreeable,  since  in  an  earlier  but  unimportant  case, 
which  I  had  referred  to  you,  you  had  promised 
much  and  done  nothing." 

"  That  makes  it  all  clear.  He  ordered  me  to 
appear  before  him,  told  me  how  pleased  you  were 
with  my  action,  then  forced  me  to  tell  him  all 
about  the  first  case,  fined  me  one  thousand  ounces 
of  silver,  and  warned  me  that  if  within  a  month 
I  failed  to  secure  this  property  and  deliver  it  to 
you,  he  would  fine  me  another  equal  amount  and 
remove  me  from  office.  You  need  never  complain 
again.  No  thief  will  disturb  your  Legation  in 
future."     And  none  did. 

It  may  appear  surprising,  in  view  of  what  has 
preceded,  that  few  nations  have  such  a  complete 
civil  service  as  China,  or  one  in  which  the  checks 
and  guards  against  injustice,  oppression,  and  every 
form  of  maladministration  have  been  so  carefully, 
and  with  such  apparent  wisdom,  wrought  out. 
Yet  such  is  the  case.     The  regulations  calculated 


2  24  THE  REAL    CHINAMAN. 

to  secuie  the  people  against  official  wrongdoing 
are  elaborate,  exhaustive,  and  minute  in  detail. 
Faithfully  enforced  under  intelligent  popular  press- 
ure— and  any  civil  service  is  worthless  without  that 
— they  would  produce  an  ideal  public  service. 
Mention  has  already  been  made  of  the  censorate, 
that  body  of  independent  watchdogs  of  the  public 
welfare,  whose  eyes  are  supposed  to  be  fastened 
in  close  scrutiny  upon  every  official,  no  matter 
what  his  rank  in  the  empire,  and  through  whom 
the  meanest  subject  may  carry  his  wrongs,  free  of 
fear  or  expense,  to  the  Emperor  in  person. 

Some  of  the  regulations  governing  appointments 
to  office,  and  the  conduct  of  those  appointed,  are 
worthy  of  recital,  both  as  showing  practical  wis- 
dom, and  also  the  evils  against  which  the  central 
government  has  found  it  necessary  to  guard.  No 
officer  can  occupy  a  post  within  the  province  where 
he  was  born.  He  cannot  employ  any  relatives  in 
any  position,  however  menial.  He  cannot  take  a 
wife  or  a  concubine  from  among  the  people  over 
whom  he  has  authority.  No  two  persons  related 
as  closely  as  second  cousins  can  hold  office  within 
the  same  province.  Hardly  a  year  passes  without 
transfers  being  made  under  this  rule.  The  fore- 
going are  manifestly  intended  as  guards  against 
favoritism  or  injustice  growing  out  of  family  influ- 
ence. Another  regulation  to  which  the  Chinese 
attach  great  importance  limits  the  retention  of  any 
post  to  three  years.  At  the  termination  of  that 
period  the  officer  is  removed  to  some  other  point, 
and,  theoretically  at  least,  is  given  a  more  or  less 
desirable  position,  as  his  record  may  warrant.     On 


OFFICIALS  AND   PEOPLE.  225 

rare  occasions,  and  in  response  to  popular  demand, 
he  is  given  a  second  term  at  the  same  post,  but,  on 
tlie  wliole,  the  rule  of  change  is  faitlifully  en- 
forced. The  manifest  intent  of  this  provision  is  to 
preclude  the  formation  of  either  such  strong  per- 
sonal friendships  or  corrupt  combinations  as  w^ould 
affect  the  even-handed  administration  of  affairs. 

Much  has  been  written,  and  many  amusing, 
though  perhaps  apocryphal  stories  told  regard- 
ing the  sale  of  offices  in  China,  and  the  absurd  and 
grotesque  conduct  of  those  who  have  thus  secured 
position  and  power.  The  author  is  convinced  that 
these  statements  are  not  borne  out  by  the  facts, 
but  are  the  natural  result  of  the  confusion  of  two 
distinct  and  different  honors,  each  of  which  is 
eagerly  sought  after  by  the  people.  Undoubtedly 
the  right  to  use  an  official  title  and  to  wear  the 
button  which  represents  it  upon  the  hat  has  been, 
in  times  of  special  stress,  sold  to  a  very  large  ex- 
tent. Such  honors  are  also  not  infrequently  granted 
by  the  Emperor  to  public-spirited  individuals  who 
have  contributed  funds  to  build  bridges,  repair 
roads  or  dykes,  or  rendered  conspicuous  service 
in  other  directions.  Such  honors  cairy  with  them 
certain  legally  defined  special  privileges,  but  they 
never  confer  the  right  to  hold  office.  The  author 
has  known  many  Chinese  who  had  thus  bought  or 
earned  official  title,  but  he  has  never  met  one  who 
was  an  office-holder,  nor,  as  the  result  of  an  in- 
quiry of  considerable  length,  has  he  found  a  Chi- 
nese who  knew  or  had  heard  of  any  official  above 
the  rank  of  village  constable  who  had  secured  a 
position  by  such  means.     Titular  honors  and  dig- 


226 


THE  REAL   ClIIXAMAX. 


nities  can  be  purchased,  but  the  road  to  office  lies 
exclusively  through  the  educational  examinations, 
controlled  and   conducted   by  the  government.      It 


riHNi.si:  lu.ccvR. 


would  not  !)(■  ('(lually  sate  Id  deny  that  nu)ney  hiii 
sniDiilhi'd  the  path  Id  pi'DinDtioii  when  once  tliose 
examinal  ions  have;  been  successfully  passetl. 


OFFICIALS  AND  FEOFLE.  227 

Public  opinion  plays  i\n  essential  part  in  the 
control  of  the  conduct  of  Chinese  ofificials.  Any 
magistrate  who  ignores  it,  or  outrages  the  feelings 
of  the  people,  is  certain,  sooner  or  later,  to  come 
to  grief.  He  has  three  duties  to  perform.  He 
must  preserve  peace  and  order,  collect  and  remit 
the  amount  of  taxes  apportioned  to  his  district,  and 
see  to  it  that  no  complaints  are  maile  against  him. 
Within  these  three  points  he  is  practically  left  un- 
trammeled.  Ilis  district  is  farmed  out  to  him,  and 
few  questions  are  asked  concerning  his  methods, 
so  long  as  questions  are  not  provoked  by  charges 
of  maladministration  coming  from  those  whom  he 
governs.  The  people,  upon  their  part,  have  a  far 
more  intelligent  conception  of  what  the  proper 
duties  and  liuthority  of  an  official  are  than  might 
be  expected.  As  has  been  stated,  they  allow  him 
a  very  liberal  latitude  beyond  the  strict  letter  of 
the  law,  but  are  (juick  to  show  their  displeasure 
when  he  goes  too  far  ;  and  a  record  of  an  unpopu- 
lar administration  has  a  very  damaging  effect  upon 
a  local  magistrate  when,  at  the  close  of  the  pre- 
scribed three  years'  term  of  service  at  one  post, 
the  question  of  his  transfer  arises.  In  this  way 
self-interest  serves  as  a  valuable  check  to  what  the 
Chinese  would  regard  as  unreasonable  excess  of 
authority. 

Scattered  throughout  all  parts  of  the  empire  is  a 
class  of  men  known  among  foreigners  as  "  the  lit- 
erati." They  are  the  educated  men  of  the  com- 
munities where  they  reside.  They  have  completed 
the  necessary  course  of  study,  and  have  passed  one 
or  more  of  the    government    examinations    which 


2  28  THE   REAL    CHIXAMAN, 

form  the  preliminary  test  to  office-holding.  As 
near  as  any  correspondences  can  be  said  to  exist 
between  things  Oriental  and  our  Western  ways, 
the}'  may  be  compared  to  college-bred  men  among 
us  who  are  not  in  official  life.  There  is  this  essen- 
tial difference,  however.  All  of  these  Oriental 
graduates  pursued  their  course  of  study  with  a 
direct  view  to  office-holding  as  a  lifelong  career. 
All  are  possible  office-holders,  and  a  majority  are 
hopeful  and  expectant  of  that  distinction. 

These  are  the  influential  men  in  every  com- 
munity, as  would  be  expected.  They  have  certain 
legal  privileges  and  immunities  which  no  power 
less  exalted  than  the  governor  of  a  province  can 
curtail  or  remove.  In  a  measure  the}^  are,  there- 
fore, independent  of  the  local  authority.  As  they 
consider  it  undignified  to  engage  in  labor  or  trade, 
nothing  but  the  sharp  necessity  of  actual  suffering 
will  drive  them  to  work  ;  hence,  as  a  rule,  they 
have  abundant  leisure  in  v/hich  to  watch  those 
into  whose  shoes  they  hope  some  day  to  step. 
Since  they  esteem  themselves  as  belonging  to  the 
ruling  class,  they  are  generally  moderate  in  their 
criticisms  of  those  in  office  ;  but  they  mould,  con- 
trol, and  guide  public  opinion.  They  are  invariably 
the  arbitrators  in  the  settlement  of  disputes  among 
the  people,  and  in  all  questions  at  issue  between 
the  people  and  their  magistrates.  They  constitute 
a  sort  of  unofficial  extra  legal  jury,  always  in  ses- 
sion. The  central  government  manages  to  keep 
in  touch  with  them  through  the  censorate,  and,  as  a 
rule,  shows  great  deference  to  their  opinions,  which 
it  recognizes  as  the  exponent  of  the  popular  will. 


OFFICIALS  AND  PEOPLE.  229 

The  controlling,  moderating  influence  which  such 
a  body  of  men  must  exercise  upon  an  ofliciiii  in- 
clined eitlier  to  cruelty  or  greed  must  be  readily 
seen.  They  belong  to  his  class  in  society,  many 
of  them  hope  at  some  time  to  occupy  a  position 
similar  to  his  ;  hence  they  are  inclined  to  exercise 
charity  in  their  judgment  of  his  acts.  Upon  the 
other  hand,  their  families,  relatives,  and  friends 
are  among  those  who  must  suffer  from  his  wrong- 
doing, and  they  cannot  be  silent  to  their  appeals. 
Upon  his  part,  tlie  magistrate  needs  the  moral  sup- 
port of  this  class  in  aid  of  his  authority,  and  thus 
they  become  a  sort  of  balance-wheel  or  regulator 
in  every  district  in  China. 

As  between  officials  and  people,  it  may  be  readily 
admitted  that  the  intervention  of  the  literati  is 
commonly  in  the  interests  of  good  government,  and 
beneficial  ;  but  they  are  credited  with  the  use  of 
their  power  in  other  directions,  in  which  it  has 
worked  great  injury  to  the  State,  cost  it  large 
sums  in  the  way  of  indemnities,  and,  more  than 
once,  brouglit  it  to  the  verge  of  war.  The  Chi- 
nese literati  arrogate  to  themselves  the  conserva- 
tism of  public  morals  and  the  preservation  of  the 
ancient  traditions  and  policy.  Each  of  their  num- 
ber considers  himself  as  a  practical  reincarnation 
of  Confucius,  and  as  a  depository  of  the  wisdom 
and  infallibility  of  that  sage.  What  he  knew,  they 
know  ;  and  anything  beyond  the  bounds  of  their 
learning  is  either  inherently  vicious  or  worthless. 
Hence,  opposition  to  progress  centres  itself  in 
them.  They  are  bigoted  and  fanatical.  The)' 
are   accused,    on   apparently    good    grounds,    with 


230  THE   REAL    CHIXAMAN. 

Stirring  up  the  people  against  foreigners  and  of 
inciting  many  of  the  outbreaks  of  mob  violence, 
particularly  those  in  which  missionaries  have  been 
the  objects  of  attack.  While  they  pride  themselves 
upon  their  conservative  influence  and  power  as  a 
body,  the}',  in  fact,  constitute  a  most  serious  men- 
ace to  the  prosperity  and  well-being  of  the  nation. 

The  Chinese  people  have  some  peculiar  methods 
of  exhibiting  their  approval  of  the  conduct  of  a 
magistrate.  A  red  silk  umbrella,  not  to  be  carried 
over  the  head,  but  by  an  attendant  in  advance  of 
the  owner,  is  a  sign  of  high  official  state.  Such  an 
umbrella,  provided  by  popular  subscription  and 
inscribed  with  a  complimentary  phrase  or  two  and 
the  names  of  the  donors,  is  sometimes  presented 
with  great  parade  to  a  magistrate  who  has  earned 
the  approval  of  his  people.  A  tablet  or  a  silken 
scroll,  similarly  inscribed,  is  also  given  as  a  mark 
of  appreciation.  In  June,  1S70,  the  prefectural 
magistrate  at  Tientsin  was  presented  with  such  an 
umbrella,  and  also  a  tablet.  The  former  bore  the 
inscription,  "  An  umbrella  of  ten  thousand  names," 
by  which  was  meant  that  it  was  the  expression  of 
the  good-will  of  the  entire  city.  The  tablet  was 
inscribed,  "  A  Buddha  sprung  from  ten  thousand 
families."  In  this  delicate  way  the  recipient  was 
complimented  as  being  the  Buddha,  the  protector 
of  the  people. 

These  particular  gifts  illustrate  the  dangerous 
power  exercised  by  the  literati,  and  to  which  refer- 
ence has  just  been  made.  They  were,  beyond  a 
doubt,  presented  to  the  official  named  by  the  lit- 
erati as  a  reward   for  conduct  on  his  part  which 


OFFICIALS  A.VD    rEOPI.E.  233 

directly  caused  the  horrible  massacre  at  Tien- 
tsin, and  which  occurred  oidy  three  days  after 
the  presentation  was  niadc.  In  this  instance  it 
may  properly  be  said  tliat  llie  action  of  the  literati 
and  their  irdluence  with  tlie  people  led  directly  to 
this  appalling  result.  It  cost  the  lives  of  twenty- 
three  foreigners,  most  of  whom  were  ladies,  put 
to  death  in  a  manner  far  too  fearful  to  be  de- 
scribed. The  magistrate  paid  for  his  umbrella 
and  tablet  by  hard  labor  for  life  as  a  prison  con- 
vict beyond  the  Amoor  River.  Twenty  natives 
were  beheaded,  a  large  number  were  punished  in 
other  ways,  and  the  Chinese  Government  further 
atoned  for  the  misconduct  of  its  officials  by  an 
indemnity  of  nearly  $500,000  in  gold,  and  a  special 
mission  of  apology  to  France. 

As  a  traveler  enters  the  gate  of  any  Chinese  city 
he  is  liable  to  see  suspended  within  the  archway 
several  pairs  of  boots,  in  various  stages  of  preser- 
vation. These  indicate  another  mode,  and  one 
quite  unique,  by  which  the  people  indicate  their 
approval  of  the  course  taken  by  their  magistrates. 
When  a  popular  official  is  about  to  lay  down  the 
seal  of  office  at  the  conclusion  of  his  term  of  ser- 
vice, he  is  waited  upon  by  a  deputation  of  leading 
residents,  who,  with  many  flowery  words  of  com- 
pliment and  praise,  gravely  request  him  to  donate 
to  the  city  a  pair  of  his  official  boots.  The  request 
is  esteemed  an  honor,  and  is  always  granted. 
They  are  taken  in  solemn  procession,  with  music 
and  mucli  parade,  to  tlie  city  gate  and  there  sus- 
pended, where  they  remain  until  they  decay  and 
drop  to  pieces. 


234  THE   REAL    CHIXAMAN. 

That  the  people  can  and  do  successful!}-  resist 
injustice  and  extortion  upon  the  part  of  their  offi- 
cials is  being  constantly  shown.  An  incident 
within  my  own  knowledge  which  illustrates  this 
fact,  shows  their  peculiar  methods,  and  exhibits 
the  forbearance  and  moderation  with  which  they 
made  use  of  their  victory,  may  well  close  this 
chapter. 

The  land  tax  is  fixed  by  imperial  decree — that  is, 
by  law — at  a  certain  number  of  decimal  parts  of  an 
ounce  of  silver  on  each  Chinese  acre.  As  individ- 
ual land-holdings  are  small,  and  the  amount  of  the 
tax  in  each  case  insignificant,  it  is  almost  invariably 
paid  in  copper  cash.  The  equivalent  of  an  ounce 
of  silver  in  cash  varies  a  few  pieces  from  day  to 
da3%  but  it  stands  substantially  at  two  thousand 
pieces  of  cash  per  ounce.  This  fluctuation  in  the 
value  of  silver,  slight  as  it  is,  furnishes  the  magis- 
trate with  an  opportunity,  of  which  he  rarely  fails  to 
take  advantage,  to  exact  more  cash  in  payment  of 
the  land  tax  than  the  market  value  of  the  bullion 
will  warrant.  In  a  certain  district  city  less  than 
a  hundred  miles  from  Peking  the  magistrates  had 
for  many  years  collected  this  ta.x  in  cash  at  the 
rate  of  four  thousand  pieces  for  an  ounce  of  silver 
— a  profit  to  themselves  of  nearly  one  hundred  per 
cent.  This  was  paid  willingly  and  without  any 
question.  As  has  been  pointed  out,  the  people 
realized  the  fact  that  the  officials  must  live.  A 
new  incumbent  increased  the  rate  to  five  thousand 
pieces,  and  this  was  quietly  paid.  Misunderstand- 
ing the  temper  of  his  constituency,  after  a  few 
months  he  raised  the  rate  of  exchange  to  six  thou- 


orriciAi.s  Axn  i'f.ople.  235 

sand.  Then  they  grumbled,  but  they  paid.  A 
further  increase  to  seven  thousand  provoked  talk 
of  organized  opposition,  but  nothing  practical  re- 
sulted from  it.  Before  the  llrst  half  of  his  term 
of  office  had  expired  he  raised  the  rate  again,  de- 
manding eiglit  thousand  cash  for  an  ounce  of  sil- 
ver, or  about  four  times  the  legitimate  amount. 

This  brought  matters  to  a  crisis.  A  mass-meet- 
ing was  held,  at  whicli  it  was  decided  to  present  a 
petition  to  the  Emperor,  through  the  censorate, 
setting  forth  tlieir  grievances  and  asking  for  the 
immediate  disgrace  of  the  rapacious  magistrate. 
Being  within  easy  reach  of  Peking,  it  was  decided 
at  the  meeting  to  send  a  deputation  thither  with 
their  memorial  and  complaint,  in  order  to  hasten 
the  redress  of  their  wrongs.  The  documents  were 
accordingly  prepared  and  a  committee  of  three  in- 
fluential literati  carried  them  to  the  capital,  and 
there  presented  them  to  the  Supreme  Court  of  the 
censorate. 

Now  the  regulations  prescribing  the  form,  shape, 
and  style  in  which  all  classes  of  official  documents 
must  be  prepared  in  China  are  exceedingly  rigor- 
ous and  minute  in  detail.  They  must  be  written 
upon  a  peculiar  quality  of  paper,  of  a  particular 
shade  of  color.  Certain  characters  must  be  ele- 
vated just  so  many  points  and  no-  more  above 
their  fellows.  The  document  must  be  folded  to 
exactly  so  many  inches  in  width,  endorsed,  sealed, 
enveloped,  and  superscribed  in  absolute  conform- 
ity to  a  specified  plan. 

Unfortunately  for  the  deputation,  their  memorial 
failed  in  one  or  two  unimportant  details  of  being 


236  THE   REAL    CHI.YAMAy. 

in  exact  conformity  to  regulations.  It  was  returned 
to  them  unread,  they  were  each  favored  with  fifty 
blows  of  the  bamboo,  and  fined  a  small  sum  for 
contempt  of  court.  They  returned  home  sore  and 
crestfallen,  and  the  local  magistrate,  in  too  great 
haste  as  the  event  pioved,  signalized  his  victory 
by  increasing  the  official  rate  of  exchange  to  nine 
thousand  pieces  of  cash  for  an  ounce  of  silver. 

He  knew  little  of  Chinese  human  nature.  An- 
other meeting  was  at  once  called,  papers  were 
more  carefully  drawn  up,  to  which  another  count 
in  the  indictment  of  the  magistrate  was  added, 
and  another  deputation  bore  them  to  the  capital. 
This  time  they  were  successful.  The  offending 
official  was  degraded,  stripped  of  his  rank,  and 
forbidden  to  apply  for  future  official  employment  ; 
and  a  magistrate  having  an  exceptionally  good 
record  was  sent  to  them.  He  at  once,  upon  as- 
suming office,  called  a  meeting  of  the  people,  at 
which  the  question  of  a  fair  official  rate  of  exchange 
between  silver  and  cash  was  fully  and  freely  dis- 
cussed, and  it  was  agreed  with  entire  unanimity 
that  five  thousand  cash  should  be  the  rate.  A 
granite  slab  was  prepared,  upon  which  was  cut  the 
statement  that  at  a  meeting  held  that  day  it  was 
agreed  and  understood  between  the  magistrate 
and  people  that,  for  all  future  time,  taxes  might 
be  paid  in  cash  at  the  fixed  rate  of  five  thousand 
per  ounce  of  silver  ;  and  this  memorial  and  evi- 
dence of  the  agreement  was  formally  set  up  in  the 
great  square  at  the  centre  of  the  town. 


CHAPTER  XI. 

EDUCATION  AND  I.ITKRATURE. 


NiEN  shu,  tso  kuan"  is  a  phrase  heard 
from  the  lips  of  every  parent  and  every 
male  child  in  the  Chinese  Empire.  It 
means  "  secure  an  education  and  become 
an  official,"  and  indicates,  what  has  al- 
ready been  said,  that  the  object  of  all  study 
in  China  and  the  supreme  ambition  is  offi- 
cial life.  Every  boy  who  goes  to  school  goes  with 
this  purpose,  at  least  when  he  is  old  enough  to 
have  any  thought  about  the  matter,  and  all  par- 
ents who  seek  education  for  their  sons  do  it  with 
this  hope  and  desire  in  mind. 

The  history  of  the  nation  justifies  this  ambition. 
For  many  centuries  the  practical  government  has 
been  in  the  hands  of  those  who  have  sprung  from 
the  common  people,  and  who,  starting  from  the 
general  level,  have,  by  means  of  an  education, 
climbed  step  by  step  up  the  ladder  of  influence 
and  honor,  until  they  stood  at  the  very  top.  While 
we  have  our  list  of  poor  boys  who  have  become 
great  men,  such  as  Lincoln,  Grant,  Garfield,  and 
others,  they  have  a  similar  list  vastly  longer,  as 
their  country  is  older  than  ours.  There  is  a  count- 
less number  of  school-boys  in  China  to-day  who 
are  inspired  and  stimulated  by  these  names,  and 


238  THE  REAL    CHINAMAN. 

by  the  possibilities  which  such  careers  open  to 
them.  Their  examples  are  as  well  known  and  as 
widely  honored  as  are  ours.  They  all  know  that 
only  a  few  years  since  a  Chinese  Prime  Minister 
died  who  was  a  poor  farmer's  son,  was  himself 
poor  all  his  life,  yet  of  whom  the  Emperor  said  in 
a  decree  announcing  his  death  :  "  He  truly  was 
my  right  arm  and  strong  heart."  And  they  all 
know,  too,  that  the  Emperor  sent  a  prince  of  the 
blood,  with  ten  of  his  own  body-guard,  to  watch  by 
the  coffin  of  the  deceased  statesman  so  long  as  it 
remained  in  Peking,  and  directed  the  viceroy  of 
the  province  of  which  the  dead  man  was  a  native 
to  attend  the  burial  in  person,  in  order  to  show 
the  respect  and  honor  in  which  he  was  held. 

Those  who  have  a  vague  idea  that  China  is  a 
heathen  country  of  vast  population,  entirely  given 
up  to  the  practice  of  cruel  and  debasing  super- 
stitions, will  find  in  Chinese  books  much  to  en- 
large and  modify  their  opinion  of  that  empire. 
They  will  be  astonished  at  the  amount  of  sound 
instruction,  pure  morality,  and  wise,  judicious 
counsel  of  a  type  so  elevated  that  it  well  might  be 
taught  to  Western  children,  as,  indeed,  it  is,  which 
they  will  find  in  the  books  prepared  for  use  in  the 
schools  of  China.  A  distinguished  commentator 
upon  the  writings  of  Confucius  prepared  a  volume 
adapted  to  primary  instruction  some  seven  hun- 
dred and  seventy-five  years  ago,  which  is  still  used, 
unrevised  and  unchanged,  in  every  school-room  in 
the  land.  In  the  introduction  a  plan  of  life,  so  to 
speak,  is  marked  out.  The  writer  siiys  that,  when 
they  are  able  to  talk^  "  boys  should  be  instructed 


EDUCATION  AXD    LITERATURE.  239 

to  answer  in  a  quick,  bold  tone,  and  girls  in  a 
slow  and  gentle  voice."  What  follows  refers  to 
boys  only.  "  At  seven  they  should  be  taught  to 
count  and  name  the  cardinal  points,  but  should 
not  be  allowed  to  sit  upon  the  same  mat  nor  eat  at 
the  same  table  with  their  elders.  At  eight  they 
must  be  taught  to  wait  for  their  superiors,  and 
prefer  others  to  themselves.  At  ten  they  must 
be  sent  abroad  to  private  tutors,  and  there  remain 
day  and  night,  studying  writing  and  arithmetic, 
wearing  plain  apparel,  learning  to  demean  them- 
selves in  a  manner  becoming  their  age,  and  act- 
ing with  sincerity  of  purpose.  At  thirteen  they 
must  attend  to  music  and  poetry,  at  fifteen  they 
must  practice  archery  and  horsemanship.  At  the 
age  of  twenty  they  are  to  be  admitted  to  the  rank 
of  manhood  in  due  form,  learn  additional  rules  of 
propriety,  be  faithful  in  the  performance  of  filial 
and  fraternal  duties,  but  must  not  affect  to  teach 
others,  though  possessed  of  extensive  knowledge. 
At  thirty  they  may  marry  and  commence  the  con- 
duct of  business.  At  forty  they  may  enter  the  ser- 
vice of  the  State  ;  at  fifty  be  promoted  to  the  rank 
of  ministers,  and  at  seventy  they  must  retire  from 
public  life." 

Other  advice  given  in  this  text-book  is  as  fol- 
lows :  "  Let  children  always  be  taught  to  speak 
the  simple  truth,  to  stand  erect  and  in  their  proper 
places,  and  listen  with  respectful  attention." 
"  The  way  to  become  a  student  is,  with  gentleness 
and  self-abasement,  to  receive  implicitly  every 
word  the  master  utters.  The  pupil,  when  he  sees 
virtuous  people,  must  follow  them  ;   wlien  he  hears 


240  THE   REAL    CHINAMAN. 

wise  maxims,  conform  to  them."  "  He  must  keep 
his  clothes  in  order."  "  Every  morning  he  must 
learn  something  new,  and  rehearse  the  same  every 
evening."  It  hardly  appears  credible  that  a  vol- 
ume containing  such  wise  advice  and  of  so  true  a 
tone  could  have  been  in  use  as  a  text  book  in  the 
schools  of  China  three  and  a  half  centuries  before 
Columbus  discovered  America  ;  yet  such  is  the 
fact. 

Another  volume  of  equally  high  standard  and  of 
general  use  is  called  "  The  Complete  Collection 
of  Family  Jewels."  It  contains  a  careful  detail  of 
the  course  to  be  pursued  by  all  who  would  be  thor- 
ough students.  The  keynote  of  the  work  is  found 
in  the  sentence  :  "  Better  little  and  fine  than  much 
and  coarse."  The  beginner  is  advised  to  form  a 
fixed  resolution  to  press  forward  in  his  studies, 
setting  his  mark  as  high  as  possible,  and  under- 
standing everything  as  he  goes  along.  The  author 
also  recommends  all  persons  to  have  two  or  three 
good  volumes  lying  upon  their  tables,  which  they 
can  take  up  at  odd  moments,  and  to  keep  common- 
place books,  in  which  they  can  write  down  sen- 
tences worthy  of  being  remembered.  And  a  Chi- 
nese proverb,  more  ancient  even  than  these  books, 
yet  everywhere  quoted,  declares  that  "  three  days 
without  study  renders  a  man's  conversation  in- 
sipid." One  ceases  to  wonder  at  the  permanence 
of  Chinese  institutions  when  he  finds  their  educa- 
tional system  resting  upon  so  high  a  level. 

Sounder  counsels  and  wiser  maxims  tlian  tliese 
can  be  found  in  no  country  or  age.  Yet  it  must 
not  be  inferred  that  the  Cliinese  course  of  study  is, 


EDUCATIO.V  A.yj)    LITER  A  TURK.  243 

as  a  whole  or  in  part,  so  wisely  chosen  as  these 
extracts  might  be  supposed  to  indicate.  Dr.  S. 
Wells  Williams  has  expressed  the  opinion  in  his 
work,  "The  Middle  Kingdom,"  "That  the  great 
end  of  education  among  the  ancient  Chinese  was 
not  so  much  to  fill  the  head  with  knowledge,  as  to 
discipline  the  heiirt  and  purify  the  affections." 
This  may  be  true.  If  so,  the  end  of  education 
among  the  modern  Chinese  must  be  held  to  be 
the  same,  since  the  course  of  study  has  undergone 
no  change  for  nearly  a  thousand  years.  But  ad- 
miration for  the  wise  moral  sayings  and  good 
counsel  is  soon  changed  to  utter  astonishment 
when  the  course  of  study  prescribed  by  govern- 
ment as  competent  to  prepare  men  to  fill  the  high- 
est offices  in  the  land  is  examined.  It  contains  a 
sufficient  amount  of  sound  morality,  as  has  been 
seen.  Aside  from  that  there  is  considerable  super- 
stitious teaching,  many  political  maxims  of  more 
or  less  doubtful  utility,  bits  of  Chinese  history 
and  tradition,  a  smattering  of  local  geography, 
and  nothing  else.  Of  these  the  history,  whether 
exact  or  traditional,  and  the  scraps  of  geography, 
are  learned  incidentally.  They  are  not  taught  as 
distinct  studies.  Their  accuracy,  and  hence  their 
value,  may  be  justly  measured  by  the  fact  that 
they  are  found  in  the  Confucian  classics,  which 
were  written  several  hundred  years  before  Christ. 

Leaving  out  of  sight  the  moral  instruction,  whose 
merits  have  been  fully  admitted,  and  taking  the 
most  favorable  view  possible  of  the  Chinese  system 
of  education,  it  can  only  claim  to' accomplish  the 
following  residts.     It  teaches  reading  and  writing. 


544  THE  REAL    CHINAMAN; 

versification,  composition  and  style,  and  develops 
the  memory  to  a  marvelous  extent.  No  people 
in  the  world  have  such  mnemonic  power  as  the 
Chinese. 

The  course  of  study  is  easily  described.  When 
the  boy  enters  school,  at  five  or  six  years  of  age,  a 
book  called  the  "  Three-Character  Classic"  is  given 
him.  It  is  in  rhyme — a  sort  of  doggerel — and  is 
made  up  of  moral  sayings  and  stories  calculated  to 
illustrate  their  excellence,  by  which  he  is  taught  to 
honor  his  father  and  mother,  worship  his  ancestors, 
fear  the  Emperor,  avoid  bad  company,  attend  to 
his  books,  and  to  practice  other  similar  virtues. 
He  is  expected  to  commit  this  volume  to  memory 
— it  is  small — to  learn  the  meaning  and  pronuncia^ 
tion  of  each  character,  and  to  write  each  correctly. 
When  this  task  is  completed  he  is  given  the  "  Book 
of  the  Hundred  Family  Names."  This  is  also  in 
rhyme,  and  is  utterly  devoid  of  sense,  being  noth- 
ing other  than  a  list  of  the  allowable  surnames  in 
the  Chinese  Empire.  He  must  also  commit  this  to 
memory,  and  learn  to  pronounce  and  write  each 
character  in  it.  This  is  followed  by  the  "  Lesser 
Instruction  Book,"  or  "  The  Complete  Collection 
of  Family  Jewels,"  from  both  of  which  quotations 
have  been  made.  These  mastered  in  the  same 
thorough  manner  as  those  which  precede  them, 
then  comes  the  great  and  crowning  task  of  student 
life.  The  nine  volumes  of  the  Confucian  classics 
are  spread  before  the  pupil.  These  must  be  treated 
as  were  the  others,  memorized,  and  each  character 
identified  and  written. 

Exercises  in  versification   and  in  composition  are 


EDUCATION  AND  LITERATURE.  245 

given  in  connection  witli  tlie  study  of  Confucius. 
Some  fine  poetry  has  been  written  in  Ciiina  ;  and 
it  is  only  fair  to  say  tliat  many  of  her  scliolars  are 
perfect  masters  of  style.  Tlie  language  is  concise, 
flexible,  capable  of  expressing  delicate  shades  of 
thought,  and  hence  favors  a  high  degree  of  attain- 
ment in  this  direction.  I  have  seen  and  translated 
an  official  communication  written  by  a  noted  Chi- 
nese scholar,  the  English  version  of  which  covered 
nearly  a  hundred  pages,  and,  in  the  whole  of  the 
original  text,  not  a  single  character  could  have  been 
withdrawn  or  changed  without  affecting  the  sense. 
The  Confucian  writings  have  already  been  suffi- 
ciently described.  They  contain  a  large  amount 
of  unimportant  and  valueless  trash  ;  and  it  must 
also  be  said  that  they  contain  a  great  deal  more 
which  no  man  of  modern  times,  be  he  Chinese  or 
foreign,  can  in  the  least  understand  or  explain. 
Those  parts  may  have  been  the  supremest  wisdom 
when  written,  but  in  the  m.any  centuries  since, 
whether  from  tlie  entire  change  in  the  meaning  of 
the  characters,  or  in  the  use  of  words,  or  from 
some  other  unknown  cause,  no  idea  of  any  sort 
can  be  gained  from  them  to-day.  They  are  sim- 
ply unsolved  riddles,  unguessable  conundrums.  I 
quote  one  sentence  of  this  sort — an  easy  one — taken 
at  random  from  the  volume  known  as  "  The  Book 
of  Changes"  :  "  The  Great  Man,  assuming  the 
appearance  of  the  Tiger,  refers  to  his  luminous 
excellence."  What  can  be  made  from  such  sheer 
nonsense  as  this  ?  Yet  it  is  as  good  as,  or  possibly 
better  than  a  large  percentage  of  the  contents  of 
those  nine  sacred  books,  every  character  of  which 


246  THE   REAL    CHINAMAN. 

must  be  memorized  and  explained  in  some  way  by 
the  student  ;  and  this  completes  the  Chinese  sys- 
tem of  education. 

Schools  are  found  in  everj^city,  village,  and  ham- 
let in  the  empire.  The  public  sentiment  in  favor 
of  education  is  universal,  and  it  is  a  reproach  to 
any  parents,  however  poor,  if  they  neglect  to  send 
their  sons  to  school.  These  are  supported,  not 
by  the  government,  but  by  subscription  or  tuition 
fees,  and  the  master,  who  must  always  have  passed 
the  official  examinations,  receives  but  small  com- 
pensation, running  from  less  than  $75  a  year  in 
small  villages  to  $150  a  year  in  the  larger  towns 
and  cities.  Private  tutors,  who  make  a  specialty 
of  cramming  young  men  for  the  examinations,  and 
have  a  reputation  for  success  in  such  work,  often 
receive  large  sum»* 

The  fittings  of  the  school- rooms  are  primitive 
and  meagre  in  the  extreme.  A  square  table,  on 
which  is  placed  a  tablet  of  Confucius,  and  a  chair 
beside  it  for  the  teacher,  are  the  most  important 
articles  of  furniture.  Beside  these  there  is  a 
smaller  table  and  a  bench,  such  as  would  be  called 
a  carpenter's  horse,  for  each  pupil.  These  com- 
plete the  furniture  of  the  rooni.  Each  scholar  has, 
besides  his  l)Ook,  a  few  sheets  of  paper,  an  inkstone 
and  stick  of  India  ink  (so  called  because  it  is  made 
in  China),  a  cup  containing  a  little  water  with 
which  to  mix  his  ink,  and  a  camel's-hair  brush 
(so  called  because  it  is  never  made  of  camel's-hair). 
These  complete  his  outfit.  The  master  is  com- 
monly provided  with  a  bamboo  rod  and  an  enor- 
mous pair  of  spectacles,  the  first  as  corrective  medi- 


ED  r  CAT/ ox  AX  J)   IJTKRA  TU  RE.  247 

cine,  with  which  boys  in  all  hinds  are  familiar,  and 
the  second  as  emblems  of  and  aids  to  the  essential 
dignity  of  his  position. 

The  child  makes  his  first  appearance  at  school 
iit  the  age  of  five  or  six,  sometimes  even  younger, 
and  attends  nine  hours  a  day,  seven  days  in  the 
week,  until  he  has  completed  the  course  of  study 
already  described.  This  is  generally  accomplished 
by  the  time  he  is  eighteen  years  old.  Upon  enter- 
ing and  leaving  the  room  he  must  always  make 
his  obeisance  to  the  tablet  of  Confucius  and  to  the 
master.  He  is  given  a  lesson  in  writing  each  day, 
and  a  portion  of  the  book  to  commit  to  memory. 
He  accomplishes  this  latter  task  by  shouting  it 
out,  character  by  character,  over  and  over  again, 
at  the  top  of  his  voice.  If  he  is  quiet,  the  bamboo 
rod  is  called  into  use.  A  tlioroughly  studious 
Chinese  boy  will  almost  raise  the  roof  with  the 
power  of  his  lungs,  and  a  well-ordered  school-room 
makes  itself  known  to  a  great  distance.  A  factory 
or  boiler-shop  is  quiet  as  a  churchyard  compared 
with  it. 

The  instruction  is  entirely  individual.  Each 
pupil  pursues  his  own  studies,  makes  his  own 
progress,  quite  independent  of  every  other.  When 
any  one  has  learned  the  assigned  task,  he  marches 
up  to  the  master,  hands  him  the  book,  then  turns 
about  and,  with  his  l)ack  to  the  teacher  and  his 
hands  folded  behind  him,  recites  his  task.  From 
this  peculiar  attitude  is  derived  the  Ciiinese  idio- 
matic phrase,  equivalent  to  the  English  word  reci- 
tation, which  means,  literally  translated,  "to  back 
the  book." 


248  77/7?  REAL    CIIIXAMAN: 

There  is  no  lack  of  evidence  to  demonstrate  the 
fact  that  the  Chinese,  as  a  nation,  possess  a  high 
average  of  intellectual  ability.  Their  writings 
prove  this  ;  and  a  considerable  number  of  recent 
tests  show  that  they  have  no  occasion  to  fear  the 
results  of  direct  competition,  as  students,  with  the 
young  men  and  women  in  Western  schools.  A 
Chinese  boy,  who  was  given  preliminary  instruc- 
tion in  mission  schools  at  Macao  and  Hongkong,' 
and  afterward  sent  to  this  country  by  the  charity 
of  the  missionaries  to  complete  his  education,  took 
the  first  prize  in  English  composition  at  Yale  Col- 
lege years  ago.  More  recently  a  Chinese  beggar 
girl,  literally  fished  from  a  gutter  in  Peking  one 
December  night,  where  she  had  been  thrown  by 
her  mother,  and  who  had  been  sent  to  this  country 
to  complete  her  studies,  graduated  with  first  honors 
at  one  of  our  best  female  colleges.  The  Chinese 
boys  sent  to  this  country  by  their  government  for 
education  according  to  the  Western,  or  modern 
idea,  furnish  a  striking  proof  of  tlae  high  average 
of  intellectual  ability  possessed  by  their  race. 
These  students  were  one  hundred  and  twenty  in 
number,  and  were  sent  here  at  the  average  age  of 
eleven.  All  could  read  and  write,  but  none  of 
them  knew  any  English,  and  not  a  half  dozen  had 
spent  a  day  in  any  other  than  the  ordinary  Chinese 
school,  already  described.  None  of  them  were 
the  sons  of  dukes  and  princes,  as  the  American 
girls  fondly  imagined.  They  all  came  from  mid- 
dle-class families,  reckoning  from  the  native  stand- 
point— that  is,  from  families  the  head  of  which 
had  an  income  of  from  $200  to  $500  a  year.     Hardly 


EDUCATrO.V  AXJ)   JJ J-ERAT UKE.  249 

a  single  case  of  either  persistent  misconduct  or 
mental  inability  developed  in  the  entire  number. 
They  mastered  English,  the  third  most  difficult 
language- in  the  world,  with  astonishing  rapidity. 
They  took  hold  of  jin  entirely  unfamiliar  course  of 
study  with  remarkable  aptitude,  and  throughout 
the  entire  course,  in  primary,  academic,  collegiate, 
and  technical  schools  held  rank  among  the  upper 
half  of  the  students  in  their  classes.  Their  deport- 
ment was  simply  unexceptionable.  The  author 
spent  twenty-five  days  with  fifty-one  of  these  stu- 
dents upon  crowded  steamships  crossing  the  Pacific, 
and  he  believes  it  impossible  that  the  same  num- 
ber of  American  boys  and  young  men  from  tlie 
same  schools  which  these  had  attended  could  have 
been  kept  together  so  long  and  under  circum- 
stances so  disagreeable,  and  shown  such  unquali- 
fied right  to  be  regarded  as  gentlemen.  They 
were  under  no  surveillance,  had  no  tutor  or  person 
of  any  authority  in  their  company.  Each  was  ab- 
solutely his  own  master.  The  president  of  one  of 
the  largest  of  American  universities  recently  in- 
formed the  author  that  five  Chinese  students — 
three  boys  and  two  girls — had  been  examined  for 
admission  into  the  collegiate  department  of  the 
institution  under  his  charge.  None  of  them  had 
had  any  preliminarj'-  education  in  this  country, 
but  had  fitted  for  college  in  Cliinese  mission 
schools.  Among  several  hundred  candidates  for 
admission,  the  Chinese  boys  took  the  highest  per- 
centage in  Latin,  and  the  girls  in  mathematics. 

Much  has  been  written  and  many  estimates  made 
regarding  the  average  of  illiteracy  in  China.      All 


250  THE   REAL    CHINAMAN'. 

such  estimates  are  purely  conjectural,  and  hence 
worthless.  There  are  no  data  available  upon  which 
to  base  reliable  calculations.  It  can  only  be  said 
in  a  general  way  that  the  proportion  of  persons 
who  can  read  and  write  varies  greatly  in  different 
sections  of  the  country.  As  might  be  expected, 
education  is  far  more  general  in  large  towns  and 
cities  than  in  rural  and  remote  districts.  There  is 
only  one  fact  bearing  upon  this  question  which  is 
fixed  and  certain.  Female  education  is  unknown. 
There  are,  practically,  no  schools  for  girls  in  the 
empire,  excepting  the  mere  handful  supported  and 
controlled  by  foreign  missionaries.  Hence,  in  any 
estimate  of  illiteracy,  the  entire  female  population, 
or  fifty  per  cent  of  the  whole,  may  at  once  be 
placed  among  the  absolutely  uneducated. 

The  government  exercises  no  control  or  super- 
intendence over  the  schools.  It  cannot  be  deter- 
mined that  the  course  of  study  was  originally  fixed 
by  the  authorities,  as,  if  such  was  the  case,  it  was 
done  so  long  ago  that  the  official  record  of  the 
fact  is  lost  in  the  obscurity  of  ages.  All  that  can 
be  asserted  is  that  an  Emperor  of  the  Tang  Dy- 
nasty, some  nineteen  hundred  years  ago,  inaugu- 
rated the  present  plan  of  preparing  and  selecting 
officials  by  means  of  study  and  literary  examina- 
tions. The  system  has  not  been  essentially  modi- 
fied since.  Like  nearly  all  things  else  Chinese,  it 
appears  to  have  sprung  into  full  form  at  once,  and 
to  have  known  neither  growth  nor  decay. 

There  are  certain  classes  of  persons  in  the  empire 
who,  while  not  debarred  from  attending  school, 
are  fcjrbidden,  with  their  descendants  to  the  fourth 


EDUCATIOy  AXD   IJTERAJ'i'RF..  251 

generation,  from  competing  at  the  examinations, 
and,  as  a  consequence,  are  incapable  of  holding 
oflfice.  These  are  persons  convicted  of  crime 
against  the  State,  tlieatrical  performers  and  prosti- 
tutes, lictors,  or  persons  who  inflict  punishment 
for  crime,  undertakers,  barbers,  table  waiters,  and 
body  servants.  A  serious  punishment  is  inflicted 
upon  any  person  not  more  than  four  generations 
removed  from  either  of  these  interdicted  classes, 
who  may  have  the  temerity  to  enter  his  name  upt)n 
the  lists  of  candidates  at  any  examination. 

Wiiile  some  of  these  discriminations  may  seem 
plausible,  even  though  unjust,  others  must  strike 
the  reader  as  utterly  absurd  and  amusing.  Thus 
a  cook  or  any  of  his  descendants  may  take  a  de- 
gree, and  the  path  to  the  highest  civil  honors  in  the 
State  lies  broad  and  open  before  hini  ;  but  that  path 
is  closed  and  barred  to  him  who  places  the  food,  pre- 
pared by  the  cook,  upon  the  table,  and  to  his  chil- 
dren down  to  the  fourth  generation.  The  artist 
who  dresses  and  decorates  the  head,  with  his  pos- 
terity, is  placed  under  the  ban.  The  gentleman 
who  attends  to  the  feet — the  chiropodist — and  his 
offspring  are  more  fortunate,  and  may  rise  to  any 
height  of  power  and  influence.  Grotesque  as  these 
discriminations  may  appear,  the  Chinese,  who  sel- 
dom lack  a  reason  for  anything,  have  one  here 
which  is  entirely  satisfactory  to  them,  however  it 
may  appear  to  Western  minds.  They  insist  that 
the  butler  and  valet  pursue  menial  callings,  since 
each  must  stand  in  the  presence  of  his  master  and 
in  the  performance  of  his  duties.  The  cook  is  not 
thus  degraded.     Again,  they  maintain  that  since  a 


THE   REAL    CHIXAMAX. 


barber  must  stand  and  his  customer  sit  while  the 
former  plies  the  razor  or  shears,  hence  he  follows 
a  servile  calling,  and  is  not  fit  for  literary  or  official 


■'   ^-^^.J^ 


A    illlNl-.SK    srri>l''NI. 

honors.  "  But,"  tliey  add  triumphantly,  "  the 
toe-nail  artist  must  sit  when  performing  his  duties, 
even  in  the  presence  and  upon  the  person  of  the 
PImperor  himself." 


EDUCATION  AND   LITERATURE.  253 

There  are  three  regular  degrees  conferred  upon 
successful  candidates  at  the  government  examina- 
tions. The  lowest  gives  the  title  of  "  Hsiu  Tsai," 
or  "  Budding  Talent  ;"  the  second,  of  "  Chu 
jr-n,"  or  "  Promoted  Man  ;"  and  the  third,  that 
of  "Chin  Shih,"  or  "Entered  Scholar."  They 
are  sometimes  compared  with  the  Western  titles; 
A.B.,  A.M.,  and  LL.D.,  but  there  is  absolutely  no 
basis  on  which  to  establish  any  parallelism.  There 
are  three  examinations  which  must  be  successfully 
passed  in  order  to  secure  the  lowest  degree.  These 
are  held  in  the  district  and  departmental  cities. 
The  examination  for  the  second  degree  is  held  at 
the  capital  of  the  province,  and  occurs  annually. 
That  for  the  highest  degree  occurs  but  once  each 
three  years,  and  is  held  only  at  Peking.  The  ex- 
aminations must  be  taken  in  order,  and  no  candi- 
date can  enter  for  a  higher  degree  until  he  has  won 
the  lower.  He  may  try  as  often  as  he  pleases, 
spend  his  entire  life,  as  many  do,  in  attempts  and 
failures  to  secure  the  coveted  degrees  ;  but  he 
must  take  them  in  order,  and  is  never  debarred  ex- 
cept for  violation  of  some  of  the  more  serious  of 
the  numerous  regulations  under  which  the  exami- 
nations are  conducted. 

The  receipt  of  the  lowest  degree  entitles  its  owner 
to  be  entered  upon  the  list  of  prospective  office- 
holders ;  but  if  he  has  ambition  for  anything  better 
than  a  subordinate  position,  he  continues  his  studies 
either  alone  or  under  a  coaching  tutor,  and  seeks 
the  highest  literary  honors  before  making  any 
effort  to  enter  political  life.  As  has  been  said, 
many   thus   strive    for  a  lifetime,   and   fail  at  last. 


254  THE  REAL    CHINAMAN. 

In  every  triennial  examination  at  Peking — that  at 
which  the  final  honor  is  conferred — there  is  always 
a  considerable  sprinkling  of  old  men.  In  one,  the 
lists  of  which  I  saw,  there  was  one  candidate  who 
was  eighty-six  years  of  age,  and  six  who  were  more 
than  seventy.  In  another,  a  candidate  died  in  the 
course  of  the  examination  from  fatigue  and  ner- 
vous excitement.  He  was  eightj'-eight  years  old. 
A  posthumous  degree  was  conferred  upon  him  as 
a  reward  of  persistency  and  virtuous  ambition. 
By  a  special  act  of  grace  the  Emperor  confers  the 
highest  degree  upon  all  candidates  of  good  moral 
character  who  have  won  each  degree  but  the  last, 
and  have  tried  for  that  and  failed  each  three  years 
until  they  have  reached  the  age  of  ninety  !  It  is 
hardly  necessary  to  add  that  a  degree  thus  con- 
ferred carries  with  it  no  right  to  an  official  appoint- 
ment. 

A  lengthy  article  could  be  written  upon  the  pro- 
visions and  regulations  under  which  these  examina- 
tions are  held.  The  most  absolute  care  has  been 
taken  to  render  cheating,  collusion,  or  any  sort  of 
trickery  impossible.  There  are  three  separate  sets 
of  government  ofificials  connected  with  every  ex- 
amination. Before  the  first — the  Board  of  Regis- 
tration, as  it  may  be  called — the  candidate  is  re- 
quired to  present  himself,  satisfy  them  that  he  is 
entitled  to  enter  for  that  particular  degree,  and 
furnish  them  with  a  sealed  envelope  which  contains 
a  fictitious  name  which  he  has  chosen,  and  which 
he  is  to  endorse  upon  the  essays  written  by  him  in 
the  course  of  the  test.  When  the  candidates  pre- 
sent themselves  at  the  appointed  hour  to  the  sec- 


EDUCATIOjV  A/VD    T.TTERATURE.  255 

ond  board — that  having  direct  charge  of  the  test 
— each  one  is  subjected  to  a  close  personal  search, 
and  if  a  scrap  of  paper  containing  so  much  as  a 
single  written  character  is  found  upon  him,  he  is 
at  once  bundled  out  of  the  enclosure  in  disgrace, 
and  forever  debarred  from  competition.  Each  is 
shut  into  a  tiny  cell,  taking  with  him  a  few  sheets 
of  paper,  writing  apparatus,  and  a  theme  for  an 
essay,  which  is  handed  him  at  the  last  moment. 
He  is  allowed  to  remain  there  about  twenty  hours, 
and  is  constantly  watched  by  sentries  to  see  that 
he  has  no  communication  with  any  other  person. 
The  preparation  of  several  of  these  upon  various 
themes,  all  selected  from  the  Confucian  classics, 
constitutes  the  examination.  The  papers  are  hand- 
ed to  a  third  body — the  Board  of  Criticism — who 
make  out  the  list  of  successful  candidates  by  the 
fictitious  names  found  upon  each  paper.  Of  course 
the  writers  are  identified  by  means  of  the  sealed 
envelopes  deposited  with  the  registrars.  Theoreti- 
cally the  names  of  unsuccessful  candidates  are 
never  known. 

The  examinations  are  conducted  in  the  same 
manner  and  upon  the  same  classes  of  topics  for 
all  the  degrees.  That  they  are  rigid  and  exacting 
is  shown  by  the  fact  that  the  average  number  who 
present  themselves  for  each  triennial  examination 
at  Peking  is  not  far  from  fourteen  thousand,  while 
the  average  of  those  who  pass  is  below  fifteen  hun- 
dred. As  a  rule,  not  more  than  ten  per  cent  of 
those  entered  at  any  test  secure  the  coveted  de- 
gree. It  is  said  that  the  scrutiny  of  the  papers  is 
mainly   devoted   to  penmanship,   literary  style,  or- 


256  THE   REAL    CHINAMAN. 

thodox  Confucian  ideas,  and  that  any  evidence  of 
independent  thought  is  sure  of  condemnation. 
They  are  certainly  very  severe  upon  the  first  two 
points  named.  A  single  error  of  the  pen  will 
cause  a  man  to  lose  his  degree,  while  a  clear,  con- 
cise style,  combined  with  beautiful  penmanship,  is 
certain  to  bring  high  praise  and  rapid  official  pro- 
motion. 

Where  so  many  fail,  it  is  not  surprising  that  suc- 
cess is  a  matter  of  great  congratulation  to  the  for- 
tunate man  and  his  family.  Feasts  are  given  and 
much  rejoicing  is  heard.  After  an  examination 
large  bills  are  placarded  all  about  the  streets  of 
the  city  or  town  by  successful  candidates  or  their 
friends  resident  there,  of  one  of  which  the  follow- 
ing is  a  free  translation  :  "  Good  news  !  Mr.  Wang 
has  the  happiness  to  announce  that  his  son,  Ah  Sin, 
by  the  grace  of  His  Imperial  Majesty,  has  been 
named  number  169  in  the  list  of  successful  can- 
didates for  the  degree  of  Master  of  Arts  at  the  re- 
cent provincial  examinations.  Rejoice  !  Rejoice  !" 
And  every  one  of  Mr.  Wang's  and  Ah  Sin's  friends 
go  and  call. 

Little  need  be  said  here  regarding  Chinese  lit- 
erature. It  is  more  voluminous  than  valuable, 
though,  when  the  factor  of  false  religious  thought 
and  superstitious  idea  is  eliminated  from  it,  the 
better  portion  of  Chinese  writing  is  found  to  rest 
upon  a  high  moral  basis.  But  those  Oriental  au- 
thors, however  intellectual  and  talented  they  may 
have  been,  appear  to  have  preferred  to  take  some 
small  theme  and  elaborate  it  to  an  infinitesimal 
point  rather  than  to  select  a  great  subject  and  de- 


EDUCATION  AXD   LITERATURE.  259 

velop  it  grandly.  Their  power  lies  in  minuteness 
of  detail.  This  is  not  surprising  when  it  is  remem- 
bered that  the  writings  of  Confucius  form  at  once 
the  centre,  model,  and  type  of  all  Chinese  literary 
effort,  and  that  any  departure  from  these  discredits 
and  injures  the  author.  There  are  a  few  excellent 
Chinese  novels,  but  the  bulk  of  their  works  of 
fiction  is  trash,  and  trasli  of  the  kind  that  is  sup- 
pressed by  the  police. 

Still  the  Chinese  mind  is  full  of  wise  and  admira- 
ble sayings,  quotations  from  their  ancient  and  mod- 
ern authors.  Some  of  these  bear  a  striking  resem- 
blance to  familiar  sayings  in  our  own  tongue. 

Here  are  three  or  four  of  them  : 

**  The  poor  are  happy,  the  rich  have  many 
cares." 

"  If  your  children  are  wise,  money  will  corrupt 
them  ;   if  foolish,  it  will  magnify  their  vices." 

"  Keep  down  the  temper  of  the  moment,  and 
you  will  save  a  hundred  days'  anxiety." 

"  To  the  man  who  cares  not  for  the  future, 
troubles  are  nigh  at  hand." 

"  Consider  the  past  and  you  will  know  the  fu- 
ture." 

"  Riches  spring  from  small  beginnings,  and  pov- 
erty is  the  result  of  unthriftiness. " 

"  Nine  women  in  ten  are  jealous." 

"  Backbiting  goes  on  from  morning  until  night, 
but  be  deaf  and  it  will  die." 

"  Be  friends  with  an  official,  and  you  will  get 
poor  ;  with  a  merchant,  and  you  will  get  rich  ; 
with  a  priest,  and  you  will  get  a  subscription- 
book." 


26o 


THE   REAL    CHINA  MA  iV. 


"  There  is  no  permanent  feast  on  earth." 

"  The  wise  man  is  not  talkative,  nor   the  talker 

a  sage." 

"  Study  is  the  liighest  pursuit  a  man  can  follow." 
If  your  fields  lie  fallow,  your  granaries  will  be 

empty  ;  if  your  books  are  not  studied,  your  children 

will  be  fools." 


CHAPTER   XIL 

ETIQUKTTK    AND    CEREMONY, 

Among  the  Chinese,  etiquette  may 
cUmost  be  said  to  tiike  precedence  of 
morality  in  importance.  So  far  as 
rigid  adherence  to  outward  forms  may 
go,  as  a  nation  they  excel  all  others 
in  the  art  of  politeness.  It  is  true  that 
much  of  it  has  degenerated  into  mere  manner- 
ism. Still,  the  form  survives,  and  makes  up  by 
the  minuteness  of  detail  and  the  rigidity  of  exac- 
tion what  it  lacks  in  spirit.  The  observance  of 
these  forms  is  practically  universal.  Cart-drivers 
on  the  streets,  ragged  and  foul  beggars  by  the 
roadside,  country  rustics  and  city  fops — all  alike 
practice  and  exact  compliance  with  them.  One 
may  call  a  Chinese  a  liar,  and,  under  many  circum- 
stances, he  will  accept  the  epithet  as  a  well-deserv- 
ed compliment  ;  but  either  accuse  him  of  a  breach 
of  etiquette  or  neglect  any  of  the  proper  forms  of 
speech  due  to  liim,  and  a  quarrel  will  be  the  imme- 
diate result. 

As  might  be  expected  in  such  an  ancient  country 
as  China,  the  system  of  etiquette  is  not  only  thor- 
oughly crystalized  and  fixed,  it  is  also  very  com- 
plicated and  tedious  in  its  forms.  It  enters  into 
the  most  minute  detail  of  action  and  speech.     To 


262  THE  REAL    CHINAMAN. 

a  large  extent  it  deprives  conversation  of  all  fresh- 
ness and  originality  by  dictating  a  set  form  through 
which  it  may  flow,  and  so  covers  simple  questions 
between  friends  with  a  varnish  or  lacquer  of  ex- 
travagant adjectives  and  bombastic  nouns,  with 
fulsome  compliment  and  intense  but  meaningless 
self-depreciation,  as  to  render  it  absurd  and  silly. 
Take,  for  example,  the  following  short  dialogue, 
which  is  an  exact  translation  of  the  invariable  con- 
versation which  occurs  between  two  gentlemen,  or 
beggars  for  that  matter,  who  meet  for  the  first 
time  : 

"  What  is  your  honorable  cognomen  ?" 

"  The  trifling  name  of  your  little  brother  is 
Wang. '  * 

"  What  is  your  exalted  longevity  ?" 

"  Very  smalL     Only  a  miserable  seventy  years." 

"  Where  is  your  noble  mansion  ?" 

"  The  mud  hovel  in  which  I  hide  is  in  such  or 
such  a  place." 

"  How  many  precious  parcels  [sons]  have  you  ?" 

"  Only  so  many  stupid  little  pigs." 

Of  course  in  such  a  dialogue  the  various  facts 
sought,  all  very  simple,  are  given  correctly  ;  but 
the  formula  of  each  question  must  be  carefully 
preserved  in  this  stilted  fashion,  and  to  omit  a 
single  flattering  or  depreciatory  word  would  be 
noted  as  a  breach  of  politeness,  and  hence  as  offen- 
sive. It  is  true  that  the  spirit  underlying  such  a 
conversation — that  of  deference — is  good.  It  is 
that  which  leads  each  to  prefer  the  other  to  himself  ; 
but  there  is  reason  to  believe  that  tlie  spirit  is  gone 
from  it,  and  that  it  is  a  mere  shell  of  language,  a 


E7-JQr/:'J'JE   AXD    CEREMONY.  263 

form  of  words.  Were  this  not  the  case,  by  such 
gross  exaggeration  it  is  made  ridiculous  and  inane. 

Among  equals  in  China  it  is  a  gross  breach  of 
politeness  to  call  a  person  by  his  given  name. 
There  are  no  exceptions  to  this  rule.  Between  the 
closest  friends  or  the  nearest  relatives  the  rule 
holds  good.  A  Chinese  would  be  angry  if  his  twin 
brother  addressed  him  in  that  manner.  It  must 
either  be  "  Venerable  elder  brother"  or  "  Vener- 
able younger  brother,"  as  the  facts  warrant,  and 
sons  of  the  same  mother  have  more  than  once  been 
known  to  fall  instantly  to  blows  for  no  other  reason 
than  violation  of  this  rule.  They  have  a  curious 
way  of  distinguishing  the  various  sons  in  a  family 
by  numbers.  Thus  the  eldest  son  of  Mr.  Jones 
would  be  called  "  Big  Jones  ;"  the  second,  "  Jones 
number  2  ;"  the  third,  "Jones  number  3."  Per- 
sons of  equal  rank  or  station,  outside  the  family, 
may  either  address  them  by  the  titles  mentioned 
above,  or  as  "  Venerable  Big  Jones"  or  "  Vener- 
able Jones  number  2,"  as  the  case  may  be.  This 
is  esteemed  quite  the  correct  thing  ;  but  to  address 
either  of  them  by  the  family  and  given  name 
would  certainly  give  offense. 

On  the  other  hand,  their  superiors  are  expected, 
or  at  least  are  at  liberty  to  use  the  given  name, 
and  are  esteemed  ignorant  or  boorish  if  they  use 
the  same  form  of  address  that  their  equals  would 
employ  ;  and  this  fact  furnishes  the  explanation  to 
the  peculiar  etiquette  mentioned  above.  The  use 
of  the  given  name  is  an  offensive  assumption  of 
superiority.  These  minute  discriminations,  end- 
less  in   number,    often   cause   foreign    residents   to 


264  THE  REAL    CHINAMAN. 

make  absurd  blunders  in  addressing  their  Chinese 
servants.  One  gentleman  brought  upon  himself 
the  ridicule  of  all  the  natives  about  him  by  invaria- 
bly calling  his  porter  by  the  title  "  Venerable  elder 
brother."  Knowing  not  a  word  of  the  language, 
and  hearing  other  servants  address  the  man  by 
that  title,  he  had,  very  naturally,  concluded  that 
it  was  his  name.  A  member  of  a  legation  in  Pe- 
king was  seriously  complained  of  because  he  had 
addressed  the  head  of  the  Chinese  Foreign  Office 
as  "  Prince  Kung"  instead  of  "  Venerable  Prince," 
as  he  should  have  done  according  to  Chinese 
etiquette.  These  blunders  are  sometimes  more 
unfortunate  than  amusing,  since  by  the  Oriental, 
to  whom  the  form  of  politeness  is  often  more  im- 
portant than  the  substance,  the  foreigners  who 
make  them  are  regarded  as  boors  and  barbarians, 
and  thus  they  may  at  times  seriously  affect  impor- 
tant business. 

Generally  speaking,  questions  of  etiquette  have 
played  a  far  more  important  part  in  the  foreign 
relations  of  China,  have  produced  more  friction 
and  misunderstanding  than  can  readily  be  con- 
ceived. Chinese  officials  are  exceedingly  tenacious 
of  their  dignity.  They  have  a  minute  and  exact 
line  of  ceremony  of  intercourse  among  their  own 
officials  of  varying  ranks,  and  they  strongly  object, 
and  perhaps  naturally,  to  the  payment  of  higher 
honors  to  a  foreign  official  than  would  be  conceded 
to  a  native  of  the  same  or  corresponding  rank. 
Thus,  by  way  of  illustration,  the  main  entrance  to 
every  government  office  in  China  is  provided  with 
three  doors  :  a  central  large  door  of  two  leaves  and 


ETIQUETTE   A  XL)    CEKKMOXY.  267 

a  smaller  one  of  a  single  leaf  on  either  side.  It  is 
a  fixed  rule  among  native  officials  that  the  great 
central  door  can  only  be  opened  for  the  passage 
of  a  person  equal  in  rank  with  the  head  of  the 
office.  The  consular  representatives  at  Canton 
for  many  years  had  no  interviews  with  the  viceroy 
there  because  he  declined  to  open  the  central  door 
to  his  palace,  and  they  declined  to  enter  at  either 
side  door.  Confessedly  they  were  far  below  him 
in  personal  rank,  but  they  insisted  that  it  would 
be  an  affront  to  the  dignity  of  the  governments 
which  they  represented  if  they  entered  by  any  other 
than  the  great  door.  The  question  developed 
much  vexatious  diplomatic  discussion,  interfered 
for  years  with  the  transaction  of  business,  but  was 
finally  disposed  of  by  the  concession  of  the  point 
by  the  viceroy. 

In  a  similar  way  the  question  of  audience,  about 
which  so  much  has  been  written,  and  which  was 
finally  settled  in  1873,  after  a  discussion  carried  on 
almost  daily  for  six  months,  was  not  a  question  of 
seeing  or  not  seeing  the  Emperor.  It  was  purely 
a  question  of  ceremony.  The  Chinese  never  raised 
an  objection  to  the  interview,  but  they  insisted 
that  it  should  take  place  in  accordance  with  the 
native  ritual.  From  time  immemorial,  whenever 
a  high  officer  of  State,  not  excepting  princes  of 
the  imperial  lineage,  have  audience  with  the  Em- 
peror, they  are  required  to  perform  what  is  known 
in  the  "  Code  of  Etiquette"  as  the  "  three  pros- 
trations and  nine  knockings,"  commonly  called 
the  "ketow."  It  consists  in  going  upon  the 
hands  and  knees  three  times,  and  each  time  knock- 


268  THE  REAL    CIIIXAMAN. 

ing  the  forehead  upon  the  floor  three  times.  Not 
a  very  dignified  or  elegant  ceremony,  it  must  be 
confessed.  Tlie  foreign  representatives  rightly  re- 
fused to  submit  to  this  requirement  of  Chinese 
etiquette,  upon  tlie  ground  that  it  was  alike  de- 
grading and  unbecoming,  since  they  were  the  offi- 
cial representatives  of  governments  equal  in  rank 
and  position  with  that  of  China,  and  also  because 
it  required  of  them  the  performance  of  an  act  to 
which  they  had  never  been  asked  to  submit  when 
presented  to  the  rulers  of  their  native  lands.  They 
would  not  render  a  greater  act  of  subjection  to  a 
foreign  ruler  than  they  had  ever  granted  to  their 
own.  The  Chinese  insisted  upon  the  "  ketow" 
for  nearly  six  months,  and  only  yielded  upon  being 
shown,  by  the  American  Minister,  instructions 
directing  him,  in  case  the  Chinese  persisted,  to 
break  off  relations  and  await  further  instructions, 
"  which  would  be  in  accordance  with  the  gravity 
of  the  situation."  Then  His  Imperial  Majesty 
gracefully  yielded  the  point,  and  contented  himself 
with  the  receipt  of  three  profound  bows.  Two 
other  minor  points  caused  some  discussion.  The 
Chinese  objected  to  the  sword  which  forms  an 
ornamental  but  useless  part  of  every  diplomatic 
uniform,  since  it  is  a  most  serious  breiich  of  pro- 
priety for  a  person  bearing  a  wcajwn  of  any  sort 
to  enter  the  imperial  presence.  They  also  success- 
fully attacked  one  of  the  representatives,  who  was 
practically  Ijlind  when  deprived  of  his  eye-glasses. 
They  appealed  to  his  well-known  good  nature,  and 
begged  him  to  leave  his  spectacles  at  home,  since 
it   was    grossly    improper,    iwnw   a   Chinese   stand- 


ETIQ_UKTTli   AXD    CKRKMONY.  269 

point,  for  any  person  to  appear  before  the  \i\r\- 
peror  wearing  them.  He  consented,  and  only 
found  his  way  into  the  audience  chamber  by  cling- 
ing to  the  arm  of  a  colleague. 

The  etiquette  surrounding  the  receipt  and  con- 
sumption of  a  cup  of  tea,  simple  as  it  may  appear, 
has  caused  more  than  one  foreigner  to  stumble, 
and,  in  one  instance  at  least,  produced  vexatious 
results.  An  American  gentleman  had  occasion  to 
call  upon  a  Chinese  official  about  a  matter  of  busi- 
ness, when  it  was  very  desirable  that  a  good  im- 
pression should  be  made.  He  was  received  with 
the  most  formal  and  ceremonious  courtesy.  Tea 
was  brought  in  at  once  by  a  servant,  and  the  offi- 
cial, taking  a  cup  in  both  hands,  raised  it  to  his 
head,  and  tlien  presented  it  in  a  most  deferential 
manner  to  tlie  foreigner.  The  Chinese  host  then 
seated  himself,  and  a  second  cup  was  placed  before 
him  by  the  attendant.  The  guest,  being  thirsty 
after  a  long  and  dusty  ride,  seized  his  cup  and 
swallowed  the  contents  at  a  single  draught.  The 
manner  of  the  Chinese  official  changed  instantly, 
and  from  being  most  scrupulously  polite  and  cour- 
teous, he  became  rude  and  insolent,  would  hear 
nothing  about  the  business  in  hand,  and  the  for- 
eigner was  sent  out  of  his  office  almost  as  though 
he  were  a  servant. 

The  guest  had  been  guilty  of  two  breaches  of 
etiquette,  both  trivial  in  Western  eyes,  yet  serious 
from  a  Chinese  standpoint.  In  the  first  place,  he 
should  have  received  the  cup  of  tea  standing,  when 
brought  to  liim  by  his  host.  What  was  far  more 
Important,  lie  should  not  have   touched  his  tea,  no 


2  70  THE   REAL    CI/IXAMAX. 

matter  how  thirsty  he  might  have  been,  until  his 
host  urged  him  to  do  so  and  set  him  the  example, 
and  he  should  have  made  that  the  signal  of  his  de- 
parture. This  part  of  the  etiquette  of  tea-drinking 
is  peculiar.  Had  the  caller  been  equal  or  superior 
in  rank  to  the  host,  he  might  have  quenched  his 
thirst  whenever  he  saw  fit  ;  but  being  inferior  to 
him,  he  was  at  liberty,  according  to  Chinese  rule, 
only  to  follow  the  motions  of  the  host,  who,  on  his 
part,  would  touch  the  tea  when  he  wished  the  in- 
terview to  end. 

The  official  had  never  before  met  a  foreigner, 
and  hence  was  peculiarly  on  the  watch  to  discover 
whether,  from  the  Chinese  point  of  view,  he  was  a 
gentleman.  The  episode  of  the  tea  proved  that  he 
was  not,  and  in  consequence  his  visit  was  resented 
as  an  unwarranted  and  inexcusable  intrusion. 

It  is  impossible  to  overestimate  the  importance 
which  the  Chinese,  of  all  ranks  and  classes,  attach 
to  these  trifling  details  of  etiquette,  which  indeed 
they  consider  as  being  essential  parts  of  propriety 
of  demeanor.  It  is  easy  to  ignore  them,  but  un- 
wise if  a  person  wishes  to  stand  well  with  these 
Orientals,  and  doubly  so  if  he  desires  to  transact 
any  important  business  with  tliem.  They  measure 
the  quality  of  a  man  by  these  apparently  minute 
and  trifling  standards.  They  are  taught  to  every 
school-boy,  are  as  old  as  the  nation,  and  as  fixed 
as  the  hills.  We  may  laugh  at  them,  find  tliem 
tedious  and  absurd,  as,  indeed,  many  of  them  are  ; 
yet  they  are  an  inherent  part  of  the  nation,  and 
conformity  to  them,  except  in  such  as  involve  un- 
dignified or  degrading  acts,   is  essential  to  good- 


ETIQUETTE   AXD    CEREMO.VV.  271 

fellowship  with  tlie  Chinese  and  to  the  successful 
accomplishment  of  any  business  to  wliich  they  are 
parties.  A  volume  mit^ht  be  written  dedicated  ex- 
clusively to  illustrations  of  the  evil  results  wliich 
have  come  from  ignorant  or  willful  violation  of 
these  rules  of  propriety,  which,  as  has  been  said, 
are  esteemed  of  equal  or  superior  authority  to  the 
code  of  morals. 

I  once  had  occasion  to  dispatch  a  consul  of  the 
United  States  to  the  capital  of  an  interior  province 
to  adjust  some  public  business  with  the  governor. 
The  gentleman  sent  was  the  proud  owner  of  a 
Mexican  saddle,  with  its  numberless  and  volumi- 
nous accoutrements.  It  may  have  been  an  article 
of  beauty  upon  a  large  horse,  but  spread  over  the 
average  undersized  Chinese  pony,  it  left  little  of 
the  unfortunate  animal  visible  except  his  begin- 
ning and  end,  his  nose  and  tail.  Tlius  fitted  out, 
and  provided  with  Mexican  boots  and  spurs,  a 
sombrero  and  a  heavy  riding-whip,  the  consular 
representative  of  the  government  of  the  United 
States  reached  the  city  of  his  destination  in  safety, 
having  excited  the  animosity  of  every  dog  en  route 
and  the  awe  and  superstitious  fear  of  every  celes- 
tial, who  saw  in  him  a  new  specimen  of  the  iinimal 
creation.  Half  an  hour  after  his  arrival  at  the 
provincial  capital,  with  a  jiromptness  highly  com- 
mendable, if  speed  liad  been  tlie  only  object  de- 
sired, with  the  dust  of  a  week's  journey  still  upon 
his  person,  he  sprang  upon  his  pou}',  rattled  over 
the  paved  streets  of  tlie  city  to  the  gate  of  the  gov- 
ernor's palace,  threw  his  bridle-rein,  or  his  lariat, 
whichever  it  should  be  called,  over  a  post,  banged 


2 -12  THE   REAL    CHIXAMAX. 

upon  the  great  gate  with  the  butt  of  his  whip,  and 
thrust  his  card  into  the  hand  of  the  dignified  but 
astonislied  attendant.  The  governor  refused  to 
see  him.  He  waited  a  week  in  the  city,  denied  an 
opportunit}'  to  discuss  his  business  with  any  offi- 
cial, and  then  set  out  on  his  return.  He  was 
mobbed  in  a  city  upon  his  homeward  journey. 
Tlie  business  entrusted  to  him  was  very  seriously 
complicated  by  this  unseemly  performance,  and 
dragged  on  the  wearisome  round  of  diplomatic 
correspondence  for  three  more  years.  In  order  to 
complete  the  illustration,  and  to  show  the  impor- 
tance of  conformity  to  Chinese  etiquette,  it  ought 
to  be  added  that  at  the  end  of  that  time  I  visited 
the  same  city  upon  the  same  errand.  I  was  re- 
ceived with  excessive  courtesy  and  kindness  by  the 
same  governor,  and  concluded  the  business  to  my 
entire  satisfaction  at  the  first  interview.  The  con- 
sul could  have  done  the  same  had  he  shown  a  rea- 
sonable degree  of  deference  to  Chinese  rules  of 
propriety.  The  difference  hiy  not  in  the  men,  but 
in  the  manner. 

Whenever  two  Cliinese  acquaintances,  cither 
riding  on  horseback,  being  driven  in  carts,  or  car- 
ried in  chairs,  meet,  each  is  expected  to  dismount 
and  miike  his  salutations  to  tlie  other.  Each  must 
hasten  to  be  first  upon  tlie  ground,  eacli  must  urge 
the  other  not  to  alight,  and  each  must  insist  that 
the  other  shall  be  the  first  to  remount.  And  they 
do  all  tliis  with  tlie  greatest  apparent  eagerness 
and  sincerity  ;  yet  it  is  only  rigmarole  and  play- 
acting. Each  knows  whicli  should  descend  and 
which   remount   first,  and   woe   betide   the  other  if 


ETIQ ('/■:■/'■/'/■:  A. YD  c/:A'K.]/o.yy.  273 

he  yields  to  his  friend's  show  of  entreeity,  and 
either  fails  to  dismount  first,  or  returns  to  his  car- 
riage while  his  superior  in  years  or  station  is  stand- 
in<^  in  the  street.  His  acquaintances  would  fail  to 
recognize  him,  and  his  reputation  as  a  gentleman 
would  be  gone  forever. 

Yet  there  is  much  human  nature  left  in  the  cul- 
tivated Chinese,  and  with  them,  while  a  tedious 
or  inconvenient  rule  of  polite  conduct  is  never 
openly  ignored  or  violated,  it  is  almost  uniformly 
evaded  ;  and  the  direct  result  of  tliis  cumbersome 
ceremonial  is  that  Cliinese  gentlemen,  wlio  never 
walk,  always  fail  to  see  their  friends  uj)on  the 
street.  If  in  carts  or  chairs,  the  curtains  are 
closely  drawn  ;  if  on  horseback,  they  are  always 
looking  in  another  direction,  I  have  known  a 
Cliinese  official  to  bow  most  politely  to  me  as  we 
met,  and  at  the  same  moment  to  fail  to  recognize 
an  Oriental  friend  and  associate,  whom  he  had 
met  almost  daily  for  forty  years.  They  were  close 
friends  ;  but  while  he  was  at  liberty  to  follow  the 
foreign  style  of  recognition  with  me,  he  was  bound 
by  another  and  more  laborious  code  of  etiquette 
regarding  the  other.  Hence  the  difference  in  his 
conduct  toward  us. 

There  is  the  same  tedious  and  absurd  formula  to 
be  observed  whenever  several  persons  enter  or 
leave  a  room  together,  or  seat  tliemselves  at  table. 
Each  knows  perfectly  his  own  place,  fixed  by  his 
rank  relative  to  the  others,  and  hence  he  knows 
which  will  finally  enter  or  leave  the  room  first, 
have  the  higher  seat  at  the  taijie,  and  take  and 
leave  that  first.      The  rule  is  absolute  and  univer- 


2  74  THE  REAL    CHIXAMAN. 

Siilly  understood,  and  no  deviation  from  it  would 
be  tolerated  ;  yet  each  one  crowds  back  and  urges 
another  to  take  the  precedence,  and  the  friendly 
struggle  must  last  for  several  minutes  before  the 
various  members  of  the  party  accept  their  proper 
places.  If  time  were  of  any  importance  in  China, 
as  it  never  appears  to  be,  the  loss  involved  in  these 
fictitious  contests  would  amount  to  something 
quite  serious.  Take,  as  a  specimen,  a  visit  to  the 
Chinese  Foreign  Office.  I  went  there  one  day  to 
speak  with  the  ministers.  Two  were  present  when 
I  arrived,  and  received  me.  We  struggled  about 
the  doorway  before  we  could  enter  in  proper  order, 
and  again  at  the  circular  table,  at  which  business 
is  always  transacted,  before  we  could  take  our 
seats.  During  the  interview,  five  other  ministers 
came  in,  one  at  a  time.  With  each  arrival  those 
already  present  hurried  outside  the  door  and  strug- 
gled in  again,  and  then  quarreled  kindly  for  the 
lowest  seat  at  the  table.  A  considerable  amount 
of  time  was  wasted  in  this  farce,  and  the  order  of 
the  persons  about  the  table  was  changed  five  times 
in  two  hours. 

Much  of  the  falsehood  to  which  the  Chinese  as 
a  nation  are  said  to  be  addicted  is  a  result  of  the 
demands  of  etiquette.  A  plain,  frank  "  no"  is  the 
height  of  discourtesy.  Refusal  or  denial  of  any 
sort  must  be  softened  and  toned  down  into  an  ex- 
pression of  regretted  inability.  Unwillingness  to 
grant  a  favor  is  never  shown.  In  place  of  it  there 
is  seen  a  chastened  feeling  of  sorrow  that  unavoid- 
able but  quite  imaginary  circumstances  render  it 
wholly  impossible.     Centuries  of    practice   in  this 


ETIQUETTE   AXD    CEREMONY.  275 

form  of  evasion  liave  made  the  Chinese  match- 
lessly fertile  in  tlie  invention  and  development  of 
excuses.      It  is  rare,  indeed,  that  one    is  caught  at 


THE    DONKEY. 


a  loss  for  a  bit  of  artfully  embroidered  fiction  with 
which  to  hide  an  unwelcome  truth. 

The  same  remark  holds  good   in   regard    to   all 


a ^6  THE  REAL    CI/IA^AMAN'. 

manner  of  disagreeable  subjects  of  conversation. 
They  must  be  avoided.  Any  number  of  winding 
paths  may  be  made  around  them,  but  none  must 
ever  go  directly  through.  A  Chinese  very  seldom 
will  make  an  intentionally  disagreeable  or  offen- 
sive remark.  If  he  is  dissatisfied  he  does  not  say 
so,  but  leaves  the  person  to  infer  the  dissatisfac- 
tion and  to  search  out  the  cause,  while  he  is  listen- 
ing to  some  tale  which  has  been  invented  with  a 
view  to  accomplish  the  same  purpose  which  an  ex- 
pression of  the  bare  fact  would  secure,  but  by  more 
pleasant  means.  If  a  Chinese  servant  is  not  pleased 
with  his  work  or  wages,  he  never  complains.  That 
would  be  excessively  rude  ;  but  he  at  once  kills 
his  father  or  stretches  his  brother  upon  a  bed  of 
sickness,  all  in  his  imagination,  and  announces 
the  sorrowful  tidings  as  a  cause  for  leaving  ser- 
vice. If  his  master  is  a  foreigner,  and  not  well 
versed  in  Oriental  ways,  he  probably  accepts  the 
statement  as  true,  condoles  with  him,  mucli  to  his 
disgust,  and,  perhaps,  loses  a  valuable  servant  ; 
but  if  he  is  accustomed  to  the  Chinese  methods  of 
indirection,  beyond  expressing  regret  at  the  mis- 
fortune recited  to  him,  he  takes  no  action  until  he 
has  learned  from  another  employe  the  actual  cause 
of  dissatisfaction.  Then  he  deals  with  it  accord- 
ing to  circumstances,  always,  however,  keeping  up 
the  farce  of  the  fictitious  aflliction.  To  bring  the 
negotiation  down  to  the  basis  of  fact  would  cause 
his  servant  to  "  lose  face,"  to  be  put  to  shame, 
and  then  no  increase  of  wages  would  persuade 
him  to  remain. 

The  extent  to  which  the  Chinese  will  gcj  in  order 


kTiqUETTK   A.\'j:>    CERKAlONY.  277 

to  cover  up  disagreeable  truths,  and  the  efforts 
they  will  make  to  disguise  their  real  feelings  and 
motives,  are  simply  astonishing.  This  is  equally 
true  of  all  grades  and  classes.  The  highest  officials 
or  the  most  cultivated  scholars  are  not  more  expert 
or  uniform  in  their  olx-diencc  to  the  exactions  of 
this  rule  of  propriety  tlian  the  meanest  coolie.  If 
they  are  obliged  to  announce  an  event  unwelcome 
t(3  them,  it  is  done  in  a  tone  and  manner  meant  to 
carry  the  impression  that  they  regard  it  as  utterly 
trivial  and  unimportant.  I  have  known  a  Chinese 
to  mention  the  death  of  his  only  son  with  a  laugh, 
as  though  it  was  of  not  the  least  consequence  ; 
yet,  as  a  matter  of  fact,  it  was  in  his  opinion  the 
greatest  misfortune  that  could  have  befallen  him. 
Only  in  private,  and  to  his  closest  friends,  would 
his  sense  of  dignity  and  the  demands  of  etiquette 
allow  him  to  uncover  his  heart  and  slu)w  his  actual 
grief. 

This  hai)it  of  repression  and  misrepresentation 
of  feeling  has  given  the  outside  world  the  idea 
that,  as  a  nation,  the  Chinese  are  stolid,  indiffer- 
ent, and  lacking  in  nerves.  Such  is  not  the  case. 
They  are  keenly  sensitive,  proud,  and  passionate. 
As  might  be  expected,  when,  under  a  provocation 
too  great  for  endurance,  they  give  way  to  their 
feelings,  the  result,  whether  it  be  grief  or  anger, 
is  as  extreme  and  unre^isonable,  from  our  stand- 
point, as  their  ordinary  suppression  of  emotion  is 
absurd  and  unnecessary.  It  is  dillicult,  perhaps 
unfair,  to  judge  them  in  this  regard,  since  their 
standard  is  absolutely  different  from  ours.  They 
have  covered  themselves  with  a  lacquer  of  courtesy 


278  THE   REAL    CHIXAMAX. 

and  etiquette  so  thick  and  highly  polished  that 
the  real  fibre  of  character  lying  underneath  is  dis- 
covered only  upon  very  rare  occasions.  Half  the 
world  believes  that  the  lacquer  covers  nothing 
valuable,  or  containing  the  finer  qualities  of  man- 
hood. The  fact  that  his  intense  exhibitions  of 
passion  are  called  out  by  what  are  to  us  trivial 
causes,  only  serves  to  intensify  this  mistaken  opin- 
ion. A  Chinaman  is  grossly  insulted,  and  he 
laughs.  A  moment  later  some  one  carelessly  treads 
upon  his  toe,  and,  in  an  instant,  he  gives  way  to 
an  uncontrollable  fit  of  rage.  His  anger  seems 
childish,  and  his  reception  of  the  insult  unmanly. 
While  both  of  these  adjectives  may  be  justly  ap- 
plied in  particular  cases,  it  is,  after  all,  only  when 
we  know  the  laws  of  self-restraint,  the  canons  of 
propriety,  which  hav^e  governed  him  for  ages,  and 
judge  him  by  those  laws,  that  we  can  reach  any 
fair  estimate  of  him  as  a  man  to-day. 

Nothing  so  confuses  and  disconcerts  the  Chinese 
as  the  blunt  and  outspoken  way  in  which  Western 
people,  especially  Americans  and  the  English,  ex- 
press their  opinions,  or  seek  to  accomplish  any  de- 
sired object.  They  cover  up  their  designs  as 
closely  and  as  modestly  as  we  do  our  bodies.  We 
expose  ours  naked  ;  and  if,  in  intercourse  with 
them,  we  are  often  puzzled  to  the  point  of  exasper- 
ation to  discover  what  it  is,  so  carefully  wrapped 
and  concealed,  that  tlic}'  actually  desire,  they,  on 
the  other  hand,  are  not  infrequently  misled  by 
our  frankness,  and  give  us  what  we  wish,  chuckling 
with  the  mistaken  thought  that  it  was  not  what  we 
wanted,    but  that    our   apparently   naked    purpose 


ETIQUETTE  AND    CEREMONY.  279 

was,  after  all,  only  a  cloak  covering  another  and 
quite  different  design. 

The  following  incident  illustrates  another  phase 
or  bremch  of  the  complicated  system  of  Chinese 
etiquette.  In  January,  1881,  the  butler  employed 
by  the  writer,  and  who  had  been  in  his  service 
some  ten  years,  informed  him  that  he  must  leave 
his  position.  Upon  being  asked  for  his  reason,  he 
stated  that  on  the  previous  evening  he  had  gone 
out  after  dinner,  and  had  thoughtlessly  locked  the 
room  which  he  and  the  fireman  occupied  together, 
and  had  taken  the  key  with  him.  The  fireman 
was  also  out,  and,  upon  coming  home  about 
eleven  o'clock,  was,  of  course,  unable  to  enter  his 
room. 

He  could  easily  have  gone  into  a  room  with 
another  servant  for  the  night,  but  refused  to 
do  so,  because  very  angry,  and  going  to  the  res- 
idence of  the  butler's  family  near  by,  he  had 
worked  himself  into  a  violent  passion,  raved  and 
stormed  up  and  down  the  street,  calling  the 
butler's  wife  and  mother  all  manner  of  evil 
names,  and  had  effectually  roused  the  entire  neigh- 
borhood. 

Having  performed  in  this  manner  for  about  an 
hour,  he  returned  to  the  Legation  and  went  to  bed 
with  another  servant,  as  he  ought  to  have  done  in 
the  first  place.  The  butler  added  that  the  offense 
was  so  serious  and  so  public,  that  he  had  decided 
to  "  take  the  law"  to  the  fireman,  and  as  it  would 
Qot  be  decent  to  take  such  a  step  when  both  re- 
mained in  the  master's  service,  he  must  beg  to  be 
released. 


28o  THE   REAL    CI/IXAMA.V. 

I  pointed  out  to  him,  in  the  first  place,  that  no 
Chinese  court  could  take  notice  of  his  complaint 
so  long  as  the  fireman  remained  in  the  service  of 
an  officer  of  the  Legation  ;  hence,  it  would  be 
idle  for  him  to  give  up  his  position  unless  the  fire- 
man were  also  discharged.  In  the  second  place, 
I  pointed  out  to  him  that  to  take  the  matter  into 
the  courts  would  only  serve  to  let  five  hundred 
people  hear  the  bad  words  used,  when  not  more 
than  fifty  people  had  heard  them  in  the  first  instance. 
I  promised  to  look  into  the  matter  carefully,  and 
if  the  facts  were  as  stated,  to  see  that  the  fireman 
was  properly  dealt  with.  I  urged  the  butler  not 
to  leave  his  place,  and  not  to  take  any  further  steps 
until  I  had  made  an  effort  to  settle  the  ditificulty. 
To  this,  after  some  hesitation,  the  butler  con- 
sented. 

The  writer  then  sent  for  the  fireman,  and  asked 
for  his  side  of  the  story.  Strangely  enough,  it 
agreed  entirely  with  what  the  butler  had  said. 
The  fireman  admitted  that  he  weis  entirely  in  the 
wrong,  said  he  was  very  much  ashamed  of  what 
he  had  done,  and  promised  to  submit  to  any  pun- 
ishment which  the  master  saw  fit  to  inflict.  He 
was  spoken  to  very  sharply  about  his  offense,  and 
told  plainly  that  had  he  been  a  foreigner,  his  words, 
if  used  toward  the  family  of  another  foreigner, 
would  possibly  have  cost  him  his  life. 

After  allowing  the  matter  to  rest  two  or  three 
days,  the  butler  and  fireman  were  summoned  before 
the  master  and  their  fellow-servants.  The  master 
recited  the  facts,  which  botli  admitted  to  be  cor- 
rect. 


ETIQUETTE  AND    CEREMONY.  283 

The  fireman  then  confessed  his  fault,  and  went 
upon  his  hands  and  knees  before  the  butler,  knock- 
ing his  head  three  times  upon  the  floor  by  way  of 
begging  pardon.  He  was  then  sent  with  the  butler 
and  another  servant  to  the  butler's  house,  where 
he  made  a.  similar  apology  to  the  wife  and  mother 
whom  he  had  insulted.  This  was  the  Chinese  way 
of  settlement,  and  with  it  the  writer  supposed  the 
trouble  had  ended,  as  the  injured  party  said  he 
was  satisfied. 

But  two  days  later  the  butler  came  to  his  master 
again  to  say  that  while  he  and  his  family  were 
satisfied  with  the  apology  made,  yet  the  insulting 
words  had  been  shouted  in  the  ears  of  all  the 
neighbors,  who  knew  nothing  about  the  fireman's 
confession  and  apology,  and  that  the  neighbors 
were  already  looking  askance  at  him,  and,  to  quote 
the  exact  words  used  by  him,  "  unless  he  could 
find  some  way  to  repaint  his  front  door" — that  is, 
find  some  way  to  make  the  fireman's  apology  pub- 
lic— the  neighbors  would  refuse  to  have  an)^thing 
to  do  with  him,  and  might  drive  him  out  of  the 
neighborhood. 

The  writer  admitted  the  force  of  this  point,  and, 
after  a  moment's  thought,  said  : 

"  Well,  I  think  you  are  right  ;  and  I  will  fine  tlie 
fireman  half  a  month's  wages,  and  pay  you  the 
money.  Then  you  can  tell  your  neighbors  thiit  I 
have  done  so.  Here  is  the  money,  and  1  will  take 
it  out  of  his  wages  at  the  end  of  the  month." 

Three  tlollars  were  handed  to  the  butler. 

But  he  refused  tliem,  saying  :  "  Oh,  no  ;  I  can't 
do  that.      It  wt)uld   onlv   make   the    matter  worse. 


2 84  THE  REAL    CHINAMAy. 

The  neighbors  would  then  say  that  I  had  allowed 
my  family  to  be  insulted  for  three  dollars." 

"  Well,  what  shall  I  do  with  the  case  ?" 

The  butler  replied  :  "  Give  the  money  to  one  of 
the  other  servants,  telling  him  what  it  is  for,  and 
he  will  know  how  to  use  it." 

This  was  done.  The  money  was  given  to  the 
groom,  who  was  told  to  use  it  in  whatever  manner 
he  thought  best,  to  satisfy  the  neighbors  of  the 
butler  that  the  fireman  had  made  due  reparation. 
The  writer  presumed  that  the  money  would  be 
spent  for  a  feast,  to  which  the  neighbors  would  be 
invited,  and  at  which  the  fireman  Avould  publicly 
repeat  his  confession  and  apology. 

But  three  days  later  the  groom  came  to  his  mas- 
ter and  said  : 

"  I  have  attended  to  that  matter  which  you  gave 
me.  I  paid  a  dollar  and  forty  cents  for  paint,  and 
a  dollar  for  a  painter.  The  work  has  been  done, 
and  I  have  sixty  cents  left.  What  shall  I  do  with 
it?" 

The  writer,  astonished  beyond  measure,  said  : 

"  I  don't  understand  you.  What  do  you  mean 
about  paint  and  a  painter  ?" 

The  groom  explained  then  that  the  butler  luul 
meant  literally  what  he  had  said  about  "  repaint- 
ing his  front  door  ;''  that  it  was  a  custom  in  Peking 
that,  in  similar  cases  of  insult  to  the  members  of  a 
family,  the  front  door  should  be  freslily  painted 
at  the  expense  of  the  person  guilty  of  the  insult, 
as  a  public  act  of  apology  and  retraction.  Hence, 
he  had  caused  the  butler's  door  to  have;  a  new  coat 
(  f  paint,  and  thus  public   opinion  w;is  satistied  and 


K  TIQ i  '/■:  TTK   AXD    CEREMOX  Y 


285 


the   insulted    dignity    iind    wounded    lioncjr   of   the 
butler  were  avenged  ! 

The  groom  was  directed  to  return  the  sixty  cents, 
cash  balance  in  hand,  to  the  fireman. 


CHAPTER   XIII. 


MERCHANTS    AND    TRICKS    OF    TRADE, 


While  there  is  no  such  thing  as 
caste  in  China,  and  few  class  dis- 
tinctions more  fixed  and  permanent 
than  those  current  in  the  United 
States,  the  entire  population  is  di- 
vided and  ranked  in  public  estima- 
tion according  to  the  occupation  of 
each  individual.  This  gradation  is 
expressed  in  the  phrase,  "  Shih, 
nung,  kung,  shang, "  which  every  Chinese  uses, 
and  which  expresses  exactly  the  comparative  esti- 
mation in  which  the  various  callings  are  held,  be- 
ginning witli  the  highest  and  grading  downward. 
Translated  into  English,  it  runs  thus  :  "  Scholars, 
farmers,  artisans  or  laborers,  merchants." 

This  arrangement  is  not  so  unphilosophic  as 
may  at  first  sight  appear.  Scholars  rank  highest 
in  the  social  order,  since  the  brain  is  better  than 
the  body.  The  producer  comes  next  in  honor, 
because  he  alone  is  able  to  develop  something  out 
of  nothing,  or,  at  least,  approximates  as  closely  to 
that  result  as  any  human  being  can.  The  artisan 
or  laborer  ranks  third,  since  he,  by  hand  and  brain, 
transforms  a  less  valuable  article  into  one  of  more 
general  utility  and  adapted  to  a  higher  range  of 


Af/':A'(7/.INTS  AND    'J'RICk'S   OF    TRAnE.     2<S7 

service.  The  merchant  stands  at  the  bottom  of 
the  list,  for  the  reason  that  he  neither  produces 
nor  increases  the  inherent  vahie  or  usefulness  of 
anything.  He  trades  upon  the  labor  and  the  needs 
of  others.  He  is  simply  a  medium  of  interchange. 
Right  or  wrong,  this  is  the  Chinese  view  ;  and  the 
four  words  are  used  in  a  broad  generic  sense. 
The  first  comprises  all  educated  men,  thus  embrac- 
ing all  officials  ;  the  second  embraces  all  tillers  of 
the  soil  ;  the  third,  all  forms  of  skilled  and  un- 
skilled labor  ;  and  tlie  fourth,  the  entire  and  im- 
mense variety  of  commercial  occupations. 

However  Chinese  merchants  may  be  catalogued 
in  the  social  grades  of  tlieir  native  land,  they  have 
no  occasion  to  fear  the  results  of  comparison  with 
their  fellows  in  other  parts  of  the  world.  They 
are  shrewd,  sagacious,  enterprising,  and,  as  a 
class,  upright  and  honoral)le.  They  realize  fully 
the  importance  of  a  reputation  for  commercial  in- 
tegrity, and  scrupulously  maintain  their  credit. 
As  has  been  justly  said  by  a  recent  English  writer, 
"  The  merchants  and  traders  of  China  have  gained 
the  respect  and  won  the  admiration  of  all  those 
who  have  been  brought  into  contact  with  them." 
A  few  years  since  the  manager  of  the  largest  for- 
eign banking  house  in  the  most  important  commer- 
cial centre  of  the  East  said,  in  speaking  upon  this 
point  :  "I  have  referred  to  the  high  commercial 
standing  of  the  foreign  community.  The  Chinese 
are  in  no  way  behind  us  in  that  respect — in  fact, 
I  know  of  no  people  in  the  world  I  would  sooner 
trust  than  tlie  Chinese  merchant  and  banker.  I 
may   mention    that    for   tlie    last   twenty-five   years 


288  THE  REAL    CHINAMAN: 

the  bank  has  been  doing  a  very  large  business 
with  Chinese,  amounting  to  hundreds  of  millions 
of  taels  (ounces  of  silver  bullion),  and  we  have 
never  yet  met  with  a  defaulting  Chinaman."  And 
it  ought  to  be  added  that  no  man  in  either  the 
Eastern  or  Western  world  was  so  well  qualified  to 
express  an  opinion  upon  this  point  as  the  gentle- 
man whose  remarks  are  here  quoted. 

Many  causes  have  combined  to  pn)duce  this  de- 
sirable result,  one  of  which  deserves  especial  men- 
tion. There  are  three  "  settling  days"  in  each 
year  for  all  classes  of  business  transactions  in  the 
Chinese  Empire.  Accounts  may,  by  mutual  con- 
sent, be  carried  past  two  of  these,  and  sometimes 
are  ;  but  on  New  Year's  Day  every  transaction 
must  be  put  into  exact  shape,  the  books  balanced, 
and  all  debts  paid.  That  this  rule  is  on  rare  occa- 
sions violated  or  compromised  is  doubtless  true, 
but  not  to  any  such  extent  as  to  render  it  less  than 
certain  and  imperative.  In  certain  sections  of  the 
empire  money-lenders  are  required,  if  called  upon 
to  do  so,  to  rebate  a  certain  percentage  of  the  in- 
terest accrued  and  payable  if  the  debt  is  paid  within 
the  last  ten  days  of  the  old  year  ;  l)ut  this  concession 
is  rarely  claimed  by  any  except  the  very  poor,  since 
it  lessens  their  ability  to  secure  loans  in  the  future. 
Custom  demands  thati  any  respectable  Chinese 
having  business  out  of  doors  after  dark  should 
carry  a  lantern,  no  matter  if  there  be  a  full  moon 
shining  in  a  cloudless  sky.  As  a  result  of  this 
peculiar  t)adge  of  respectability,  the  streets  of  any 
Chinese  city  present  a  curious  sight  upon  New 
Year's  morning.      Well-dressed   Orientals    may   be 


MERCHANTS   AND     TRICKS    OF    TRADE.      291 

seen  hurrying  about  in  the  full  blaze  of  the  morn- 
ing sun,  carrying  a  bundle  of  bills  in  one  hand 
and  a  lighted  lantern  in  the  other.  To  them  it  is 
theoretically  New  Year's  h2vc.  Only  when  the 
last  bill  is  paid  or  collected  does  the  first  day  of 
the  new  year  dawn.  Then  the  lantern  is  extin- 
guished, and  they  recognize  the  existence  of  the 
sunlight. 

The  Chinese  are  what  may  be  termed  natural 
merchants.  Possessing  the  commercial  instinct  in 
a  high  degree,  they  are  close,  shrewd,  and  far- 
sighted  in  their  bargains,  untiring  in  their  efforts 
to  get  the  better  of  those  with  whom  they  deal, 
and  fertile  to  an  iistonisliing  degree  in  the  "  tricks 
of  the  trade."  They  understand  as  well  as  the 
sharpest  Western  merchant  that  a  positive  advan- 
tage may  sometimes  be  gained  by  selling  an  article 
at  less  than  its  actual  cost.  A  Chinese  who  kept  a 
small  hotel  in  Peking — and  he  was  a  merchant  in 
the  native  sense  of  the  word — once  applied  this 
principle  in  a  very  peculiar  fashion.  He  asked  at 
the  United  States  Legation  for  information  whether, 
according  to  our  laws,  he  could  eject  a  non-paying 
American  boarder  from  his  establishment,  and 
hold  the  debtor's  baggage  as  security  for  his  bill. 
He  was  informed  that  he  could,  but  advised,  if  he 
decided  to  dismiss  his  unprofitable  guest,  to  allow 
him  to  take  his  property  away,  since  it  could  not 
be  worth  more  than  "  two  dollars  and  a  half." 

"  That  may  be  true,"  he  replied,  "  but  two  dol- 
lars and  a  half  is  more  than  nothing.  The  fact  is," 
he  added,  "  when  this  man  first  came  to  me  I 
agreed  to  let  him   have  board  and  lodging  for  a 


< 


292  THE  REAL    CHINAMAN. 

dollar  a  day.  He  remained  six  months  with  me 
upon  those  terms,  but  paid  me  nothing.  Then 
I  reduced  the  price  to  half  a  dollar  a  day  in  order 
that  I  might  not  lose  so  much  by  him."  This  inci- 
dent is  given  rather  as  an  Oriental  vagary  than  as 
an  example  of  shrewdness. 

There  are  some  very  essential  differences  be- 
tween the  Chinese  retail  merchant  or  trader,  as 
our  British  friends  would  call  him,  and  his  confrere 
in  the  Western  world.  The  foreign  merchant 
studies  the  cost  of  his  merchandise,  its  quality, 
the  condition  of  the  market,  whether  supply  is  in 
excess  of  demand  or  the  reverse,  and  fixes  his  price 
accordingly. 

The  Chinese  trader  studies  all  these  points  with 
equal  care,  but  he  also  studies  each  customer. 
He  looks  him  over  from  head  to  foot,  makes  a 
rapid  but  generally  accurate  estimate  as  to  his 
character,  his  closeness  or  generous  hand  in  mak- 
ing a  bargain,  his  knowledge  or  ignorance  of  the 
ruling  price,  and  only  when  he  has  completed  his 
studies  upon  these  points  does  he  inform  the  pur- 
chaser what  tlie  desired  article  will  cost  him.  Tlius 
the  price  depends  quite  as  much  upon  the  buyer 
as  upon  the  actual  value  of  the  merchandise.  A 
foreigner  always  pays  more  for  any  given  article 
than  a  Chinese,  and  a  foreigner  who  cannot  speak 
the  native  tongue  pays  for  his  ignorance  at  the 
rate  of  from  ten  to  a  liundred  per  cent  increase  in 
the  cost  of  anything  he  may  purchase. 

I  stood  once  at  a  fair  or  market  in  tlie  edge  of 
a  circle  of  Chinese  who  were  buying  bunches  of 
violets  from  a  wrinkled  old  Chinese  gardener.      He 


MERCHAXr^  AXD    TRICK'S   OF    l-RADK.     293 

was  (lisposiiii^  of  liis  flowers  (juitt;  rapidly  at  luo 
pieces  of  cash.  After  watching  tlie  scene  for  a 
few  moments,  I  made  my  way  through  the  crowd 
and  asked  the  ohi  man  the  price  of  his  violets. 
"Thirty-six  pieces  of  cash  a  bunch,"  he  replied, 
without  hesitating  an  instant.  "  You  robber," 
said  I,  "  here  you  have  been  selling  them  for  two 
pieces  of  cash  to  these  people,  and  now  you  wish 
me  to  pay  eighteen  times  as  much  !"  "Oh,"  he 
replied,  "  you  speak  Chinese,  do  you  ?  I  did  not 
know  that.  Then  you  can  have  them  for  two  cash, 
the  same  as  though  you  were  a  Chinaman."  And 
he  joined  heartily  in  the  laugh  of  the  crowd  at 
the  failure  of  his  little  scheme  to  secure  an  ex- 
orbitant price. 

One  peculiar  result  of  this  study  of  a  customer 
is  seen  in  the  fact  that  if  a  person  enters  ei  store  in 
China,  and,  after  examining  several  articles,  asks 
the  price  of  any  one  of  them,  unless  it  is  positively 
known  that  he  has  spoken  to  but  one  clerk,  no 
answer  will  be  made  by  him  to  whom  the  question 
is  put  until  every  other  clerk  has  been  asked  if  he 
has  named  a  price  for  the  article  in  question  to 
the  gentleman.  If,  as  very  rarely  happens,  this 
important  precaution  is  neglected,  the  sums  named 
by  different  clerks  will  almost  invariably  be  unlike, 
thus  showing  that  they  fail  to  agree  in  their  esti- 
mates of  the  customer. 

I  once  caught  two  clerks  napping  in  this  respect, 
with  the  amazing  result  that  the  first  asked  five 
dollars  for  an  article  barely  worth  two,  and  five 
minutes  later  the  second  gravely  declared  that  the 
firm   had   decided   to   sell   that   particular   piece   of 


294  THE   REAL    CHINAMAN. 

merchandise  at  a  loss,    and    hence    only    charged 
fifteen  dollars  for  it  ! 

Another  illustration  of  the  fact  that  the  Chinese 
grade  their  charges  according  to  their  customers 
would  be  found  in  an  examination  of  the  prices 
paid  by  foreigners  for  such  common  articles  of 
food  as  beef  and  mutton.  Every  one  pays  more 
than  his  Chinese  neighbors — probably  no  two  pay 
exactly  the  same  price  ;  or  if  the  nominal  rate  per 
pound  is  the  same,  the  number  of  ounces  given  for 
a  pound  will  not  be  quite  the  same.  The  solitary 
barber  in  Peking  who  understands  the  foreign 
mode  of  hair-dressing  charges  a  foreign  minister 
half  a  dollar  ;  a  secretary  of  legation,  twenty  five 
cents  ;  and  an  unofficial  foreigner,  ten  cents.  The 
native  pays  about  half  a  cent  for  the  same  service. 
Water-carriers  and  scavengers  grade  their  monthly 
bills  in  a  similar  manner. 

In  passing  through  Japan  I  once  had  occasion  to 
employ  a  Chinese  chiropodist  residing  there.  His 
charges,  so  he  declared,  were  five  cents  to  his  fel- 
low-Chinese, ten  cents  to  an  ordinary  Japanese, 
and  half  a  dollar  to  all  other  foreigners.  In  the 
course  of  the  inevitable  conversation  which  took 
place,  the  Chinaman  said  : 

"  I  hear  that  our  Chinese  minister  came  to  this 
hotel  to-day.    Do  you  know  whom  he  came  to  see  ?". 

"  Oh,  yes,"  said  I  ;   "he  came  to  call  upon  me." 

"  Then  you  must  be  an  official,"  said  the  China- 
man, "  otherwise  he  would  not  have  visited  you." 

I  modestly  admitted  such  to  be  the  fact.  The 
conversation  then  drifted  to  other  subjects.  When 
his  labors  were  concluded  he  demanded  a  dollar  in 


MERCHANTS  AND    TRICKS   OF    TRADE.     295 

payment,  in  the  face  of  the  assertion  that  his  regu- 
lar charge  to  all  foreigners,  excepting  Japanese, 
was  fifty  cents  ;  and  he  enforced  his  claim  by  this 
argument  in  "  pidgin  English"  :  "  Sposey  that 
China  minister  come  see  you,  you  b'long  all  same 
he.  You  b'long  same  he,  you  makey  pay  one  dol- 
lar all  same.     That  b'long  ploper." 

An  essential  feature  of  every  Chinese  commer- 
cial transaction,  no  miitter  how  great  or  how  triv- 
ial, is  the  dicker.  A  bargain  is,  in  fact,  an  intel- 
lectual duel,  entered  upon  with  all  the  eager  watch- 
fulness and  determination  of  the  knights  of  old. 
What  eloquence,  what  vigor  of  expression,  what 
freedom  of  gesture  one  may  there  see  expended 
over  the  price  or  tveight  of  two  pounds  of  cabbage, 
a  cold  boiled  sweet  potato,  or  a  cucumber  !  Quo- 
tations from  the  Confucian  classics,  impassioned 
appeals  to  bystanders,  arguments  based  on  justice 
and  reason,  and  irreverent  and  uncomplimentary 
allusions  to  the  ancestors  of  the  other  man — all 
these  come  in  play  over  a  question  which  involves 
less  than  one  cent. 

Each  is  seeking  an  advantage  over  the  other, 
and  frequently  each  is  successful,  the  buyer  pay- 
ing less  than  the  usual  price  and  the  seller  balanc- 
ing the  account  by  giving  him  short  weight  or 
measure.  Hence  each  is  happy.  At  a  fish  market, 
for  example,  one  may  see  a  dignified,  well-dressed 
Chinese  gentleman  duly  armed  with  steelyards, 
the  bar  being  graded  to  weigh  three  different  sorts 
of  pounds,  none  exact,  but  each  too  heavy,  en- 
gaged in  a  bargain  for  a  carp.  The  fish  has  been 
selected  from  a  dozen  which  were  swimming  about 


296  THE   REAL    CHEXAMAN. 

in  a  tub  of  water.  It  has  been  weighed  by  the 
buyer's  steelyards,  which  are  too  heavy,  and  by 
the  fisherman's,  which  are  too  light.  The  first 
display  of  eloquence  arises  over  the  weight,  there 
being,  in  a  fair-sized  fish,  probably  a  difference  of 
a  pound  and  a  half  between  them.  This  is  finally 
adjusted  by  mutual  compromise,  subject,  however, 
to  revision  if  they  cannot  otherwise  agree  upon 
the  price  per  pound  ;  and  over  this  point  the  war 
of  words  is  renewed,  and  rages  more  furiously  than 
ever.  Each  has  much  to  say  about  his  concession 
upon  the  point  of  the  weight.  Each  assures  the 
other  that  it  is  really  not  a  matter  of  any  conse- 
quence ;  that  the  few  cash  involved  would  not  cause 
him  to  waste  a  moment  or  a  single  word,  but  that 
the  broad  and  eternal  principles  of  justice  are  at 
stake,  and  that  he  is  their  champion  and  defender  ; 
and  appeals  to  righteousness,  truth,  and  Heaven 
fly  thick  and  fast,  until,  each  hoarse  and  out  of 
breath,  some  further  compromise  is  reached,  and 
the  bargain  concluded. 

And,  after  all,  it  is  only  fair  to  say  that  it  is 
more  for  the  pleasure  of  the  argument,  the  exer- 
cise of  the  lungs  and  vocal  organs,  and,  above  all, 
the  satisfaction  of  having  won  a  concession — it  is 
more  for  these  than  for  the  sum  involved  that 
these  contests  are  waged.  A  Chinese  merchant 
would  be  bitterly  disappointed,  and  consider  that 
he  had  been  defrauded  of  his  just  rights,  if  the 
price  named  by  him  for  any  commodity  were  ac- 
cepted without  demur  or  debate  ;  and  any  China- 
man who  accepted  the  first  ])rice  would  be  held  as 
a  fool  bv  his  countrvmen. 


Mj-:/^:c//.iX7-s  .1X1)  /'A'/ca's  of  tkade.    297 

It  is  consulered  a  breacli  of  good  manners  to 
ask  the  price  of  an  article  witliout  the  intention  of 
making  a  purchase,  and  tMiually  discourtef)us,  upon 
hearing  the  price  named,  to  pass  on  without  argu- 
ment or  remonstrance  concerning  it. 

"  What  is  the  price  of  that  piece  of  felt  ?"  asked 
a  passer-by  of  a  merchant  selling  squares  of  the 
article  upon  the  street. 

"  Twenty-five  tiao,"  replied  the  vendor. 

"  Ugh  !"  said  the  inquirer,  who  then  walked 
away.  The  mercliant  gazed  after  him  for  a  few 
moments,  and  then  suddenly  broke  out  into  a  tor- 
rent of  most  abusive  language,  calling  the  would-be 
buyer  and  all  his  relatives  by  the  foulest  and  most 
offensive  names.  The  obj.ect  of  this  abuse  walked 
more  slowly,  then  stopped,  hesitated,  turned  about, 
came  back,  and  by  the  time  he  reached  the  felt 
merchant  he,  too,  was  in  furious  anger,  and  a  bat- 
tle seemed  imminent. 

What  do  you  mean   by  calling  nic  names  ?'    he 
demanded. 

"  What  do  you  mean  l)y  asking  the  price  of  my 
goods  and  then  going  away  witiiout  a  civil  word  ?" 
retorted  the  merchant. 

"  What  made  you  ask  me  such  a  price  ?" 

"  Well,  what  if  I  did  ?  You  are  a  good  Son  of 
Han,  and  you  ought  to  know  that  we  don't  do 
business  in  any  such  way.  If  all  men  acted  as  you 
did,  no  bargains  would  ever  be  made.  You  should 
have  expostulated  with  me,  and  then  we  would 
have  discussed  the  matter  together.  That  is  the 
only  proper  wa}'.  You  know  well  enough  that 
the  price  first  named  never  means  anything." 


298  THE   REAL    CHINAMAN: 

Thereupon  the  passer-by  duly  expostulated,  the 
pair  were  shortly  in  an  excited  discussion  over  the 
proper  value  of  the  square  of  felt,  and  in  a  short 
time  a  bargain  was  concluded. 

It  may  be  said,  in  passing,  that  this  love  for  a 
dicker  is  most  deeply  rooted  in  the  Chinese  char- 
acter, and  shows  itself  everywhere  and  at  all  times. 
Whether  it  is  a  coolie  buying  a  cucumber  or  the 
heads  of  the  government  negotiating  a  treaty  of 
vast  importance,  less  is  offered  than  will  eventually 
be  given,  and  more"  is  demanded  than  is  seriously 
expected  or  desired.  Room  is  left  upon  both  sides 
for  a  concession  ;  and  a  certain  amount  of  this  by- 
play invariably  precedes  the  serious  and  practical 
part  of  the  transaction.  The  Emperor  Kang  Hsi 
declared  in  the  sacred  edicts  that  the  word  "jang, " 
meaning  to  yield,  to  concede,  to  compromise,  was 
the  most  important  word  in  the  Chinese  language, 
since  it  lies  at  tlie  root  of  all  harmonious  and 
kindly  relations.  The  entire  nation  appears  to 
have  absorbed  this  idea,  and  to  put  it  into  practice 
in  every  phase  and  act  of  life. 

The  lack  of  laws,  or  of  their  enforcement  for 
standard  weights  and  measures,  goes  far  to  open 
opportunities  for  discussion  as  well  as  to  allow 
the  practice  of  tricks  and  deceptions  in  every  line 
of  business.  Steelyards  are  regularly  made  and 
sold  in  the  markets,  having  two  sets  of  pounds 
measured  upon  them,  one  to  be  used  in  buying 
and  the  other  in  selling.  In  various  grades  of 
cotton-wool  a  varying  number  of  ounces  to  the 
pound  is  used.  For  the  coarse  grades  the  pur- 
chaser receives  sixteen  ounces,  or  a  full  pound  ;  for 


MERCIIAXTS  A. YD    TA'/CA'S   OF    TRADE.     299 

medium  qualities,  only  twelve  ounces,  while  in  the 
very  finest  he  receives  twenty-one  ounces  to  the 
pound.  Cloths  of  all  sorts  are  sold  by  the  foot. 
The  merchant  invariably  uses  one  foot  when  he 
buys,  and  a  shorter  one  when  he  sells.  The  foot 
used  for  cotton  goods  is  longer  than  that  for 
woolen,  which  in  turn  exceeds  that  used  in  meas- 
uring silk.  Such  variations,  regularly  established 
by  custom,  necessarily  counterbalance  themselves, 
since  the  price  must  be  adjusted  to  suit  the  vary- 
ing measure.  Beyond  serving  as  traps  to  catch 
the  unwary,  and  furnishing  opportunities  for  dis- 
cussion, they  serve  no  purpose  whatever.  No 
Chinaman  has  ever  been  discovered  who  could  ex- 
plain their  origin  or  give  any  reason  for  their  con- 
tinuance save  that  one — which  is  all-powerful  with 
the  Oriental — their  antiquity. 

To  the  Western  mind  these  irregularities  are  as 
absurd  and  irrational  as  many  other  customs  which 
exist  in  the  Chinese  Empire,  and  which  are  undis- 
turbed and  reverenced  in  spite  of  their  inconven- 
ience solely  because  the}^  date  back  to  the  begin- 
ning of  time.  I  was  surprised  in  driving  into  an 
inn-yard  one  day,  in  the  western  part  of  China,  to 
find  several  large  stacks  of  second-hand  cart-axles 
scattered  about.  Inquiry  as  to  their  use  developed 
the  fact  that  the  gauge  of  the  road  changed  at 
that  particular  spot,  being  six  inches  wider  west 
of  the  inn  than  to  the  east  of  it.  There  was  abso- 
lutely no  reason  for  the  change  in  the  topography 
of  the  country  or  in  any  other  condition  of  travel. 
Yet  there  stood  the  inexplicable  and  unreasonable 
fact  that  every  wheeled  vehicle,  having  come,  per- 


300  THE   REAL    CIIIXA2E4A\ 

haps,  hundreds  of  miles  upon  the  great  imperial 
highway,  must,  upon  entering  that  insignificant 
yard  in  a  village  of  not  fifty  houses,  exchange  its 
axle  for  one  of  broader  or  narrower  gauge,  accord- 
ing as  it  was  proceeding  east  or  west  ;  and  the 
only  explanation  possible  to  be  given  was  that 
"  carts  always  had  changed  axles  at  that  inn." 
The  preservation  of  the  antique  is  a  ruling  passion, 
and  a  reason  above  reason  and  logic  in  the  Chinese 
mind. 

It  is  evident  that,  with  a  varying  system  of 
weights  and  measures,  and  a  currency  that  is  flexi- 
ble and  elastic  rather  than  definite  in  value,  a  large 
element  of  uncertainly  must  exist  in  all  forms  of 
business.  Exact  bookkeeping  is  an  impossibility, 
and  the  merchant  can  only  reach  an  approximate 
estimate  of  his  gains  or  losses  in  any  particular 
transaction  or  in  his  trade  for  a  given  period.  But 
the  Chinaman  is  more  of  a  philosopher  than  a 
mathematician.  He  delights  in  broad  generalities 
rather  than  in  accurate  statements,  and  so  long  as 
he  is  moderately  prosperous  in  his  enterprises,  the 
large  increase  of  the  speculative  element  thrown 
into  them  by  the  peculiar  features  mentioned  only 
add  charm  and  fascination  to  his  calling.  A  bar- 
gain ceases  to  be  i\  dull,  prosaic  transfer  of  one 
commodity  in  exchange  for  another.  It  is  always 
a  contest  of  wits  and  often  a  battle  royal,  in  which 
the  keenest  mind  wins  the  victory.  A  Chinese  will 
insist  that  any  dolt  can  measure  off  so  many  exact 
lengths  of  cloth  and  receive  for  them  a  specified 
number  of  pieces  of  silver.  To  him  such  a  trans- 
action is  dull,   stupid,   and  flat,   requiring  neither 


MKRCHAXTS  AXD    TRfCk'S   OF   TRADE.     301 

art,  tact,  nor  bkill.  Then  he  adds — and  in  this  he 
is  right — that  only  a  man  can  carry  a  bargain  to  a 
successful  conclusion  in  his  country. 

One  interesting  feature  in  tlie  commercial  world 
of  China  is  the  co-operative  sj'stem  which  is  in 
universal  operation.  Every  member  of  an  estab- 
lishment, from  the  senior  partner  down  to  the  boy 
who  furnishes  each  customer  witli  the  inevitable 
cup  of  tea,  or  who  sweeps  the  floor  and  runs  on 
errands,  has  his  share  of  the  profits.  The  per- 
centages are  carefully  graded  to  correspond  with 
the  position  of  the  various  clerks  and  employes  ; 
but  every  one  has  a  personal  interest  in  enlarging 
the  business  and  in  increasing  its  prosperity.  As 
a  rule,  partners  and  their  subordinates  live  to- 
gether, generally  in  the  store  or  ofifice,  eat  at  a 
common  table,  and  thus  form  one  family.  No 
argument  is  needed  to  demonstrate  the  advantages 
of  such  a  system.  The  entire  staff  is  bound  to- 
gether by  a  common  purpose,  which  affects  each 
directly  and  personally.  Distracting  or  unfriendly 
influences  are  either  destroyed  or  reduced  to  harm- 
less proportions. 

The  co-operative  principle  has  another  and  pecul- 
iar form  of  application  in  China,  which,  though 
less  desirable,  is  of  equally  general  application. 
No  chapter  upon  the  commercial  side  of  Chinese 
life  would  be  complete  if  it  failed  to  describe  the 
most  serious  of  all  "  tricks  of  trade,"  that  com- 
monly known  among  foreigners  resident  there  as 
"  the  squeeze." 

The  Chinese  "  squeeze"  is  not  exactly  the  em- 
brace  of  affection   nor  the   close  grasp   of   hands 


302  THE   REAL    CITIXAMAX. 

joined  in  friendship.  It  is  purely  a  business  term, 
and  refers  to  a  pressure  exerted  upon  money  in 
any  form  by  the  fingers  of  every  man  through 
whose  hands  it  may  pass,  but  to  whom  it  does  not 
belong — a  pressure  which  causes  a  portion  of  the 
coin  to  remain  in  his  possession.  It  is  a  recog- 
nized but  unallowed  commission.  Tlie  sufferers 
by  the  system  call  it  stealing,  while  those  who 
profit  by  it  regard  the  sums  gained  as  entirely 
legitimate  perquisites,  which  they  are  fully  entitled 
to  receive. 

The  Chinese  in  their  dealings  with  each  other 
all  suffer  from  and  all  practice  it.  The  system  is 
as  old  as  the  empire,  and  is  said  to  owe  its  origin 
to  an  ancient  custom  under  which  household  ser- 
vants were  paid  no  regular  wages,  but  received 
food,  one  suit  of  clothes  each  3'ear,  and  a  sum  of 
money  provided  in  the  following  manner.  From 
the  price  of  every  article  of  whatever  sort  used  in 
the  family,  the  porter  at  the  gate  retained  one 
piece  of  cash  in  every  fifty.  Three  times  a  year 
the  amount  thus  secured  was  distributed  among 
the  servants  in  proportion  to  their  positions  in  the 
service  of  the  family.  As  all  Chinese  houses  are 
built  in  an  enclosure  surrounded  by  a  high  wall 
with  but  a  single  entrance,  at  which  a  i)oiter  is  in 
attendance  at  all  hours,  enforcement  of  such  a 
practice  would  be  easy,  and  the  man  at  the  gate 
would  naturally  act  as  collector.  It  is  easy  for 
him  to  know  all  the  purchases  made  in  the  "  com- 
jiouiul,"  as  it  is  called  ;  and  if  a  merchant  declined 
to  pay  the  squeeze  demanded,  he  would  be  refused 
admission.      Whether  this  explanatjiui  is  correct  or 


':^-K\ 


CHINESE    SERVANTS. 


MERCHANTS  AND    TRICKS  OF    TRADE.     305 

not  cannot  be  positively  asserted.  It  is,  however, 
a  fact  that,  in  paying  or  receiving  cash,  one  gives 
or  gets  only  forty-nine  pieces  for  each  nominal 
fifty,  unless  a  special  agreement  for  "  full  cash" 
has  been  made. 

There  is  no  incongruity  in  bringing  Chinese  ser- 
vants into  a  chapter  devoted  to  commercial  affairs. 
They  make  nearly  all  the  purchases  in  every  estab- 
lishment with  which  they  are  connected,  and  are 
merchants  within  the  native  meaning  of  that  broad 
and  elastic  word.  As  a  class  they  are  probably 
the  best  in  the  world.  They  are  quiet,  prompt, 
faithful,  and  attentive.  They  seldom  complain  of 
late  hours  or  hard  work.  They  have  a  keen  sense 
of  responsibility,  and  are  exceptionally  honest. 
Table  linen,  silverware,  jewelry,  valuable  bric-a- 
brac,  and  money  may  be  left  in  their  charge  with 
confidence  that  every  piece  will  be  faithfully  ac- 
counted for.  In  fifteen  years,  with  a  large  estab- 
lishment of  servants,  I  never  had  occasion  to  charge 
one  with  theft,  or  with  the  loss  through  careless- 
ness of  any  article.  It  is  commonly  and  truly  re- 
marked that  ladies  who  have  lived  in  China  are 
spoiled  for  housekeeping  at  home  by  the  excellent 
service  to  which  they  have  become  accustomed. 

But  honest  and  faithful  as  they  are  in  every 
other  respect,  Chinese  servants  will  squeeze,  and 
much  of  their  diligence  and  promptness,  much  of 
their  good  nature  and  patience  under  hard  work 
and  late  hours,  is  due  to  this  practice.  They  never 
complain  of  much  company,  extra  labor,  or  any 
unusual  demands  upon  them.  They  simply 
"  charge  it  in  the  J^ill."      They  have,  on  the  other 


3o6  THE   REAL    CHIXAMAX. 

hand,  been  known  to  leave  situations  because  the 
family  lived  too  quietly  and  had  too  small  an  ac- 
count at  the  grocer's.  With  all  the  varying  expres- 
sions of  jollity,  frankness,  or  stupidity  seen  upon 
their  faces,  they  are  shrewd  students  of  human 
nature.  Each  could  tell  if  he  would  all  the  foibles 
and  weaknesses  of  his  master,  and  especially  how 
far  he  may  safely  be  bled,  and  at  what  point  the 
squeezing  process  must  stop. 

The  system  of  "  the  squeeze"  is  universal.  All 
sorts  of  devices  and  expedients  have  been  resorted 
to  by  foreign  residents  in  China  to  put  an  end  to 
it,  and  all  have  failed.  If  one  does  his  own  market- 
ing and  makes  all  his  purchases  in  person,  he  soon 
discovers  that  his  servants  have  quietly  followed 
him  up  and  levied  a  commission  upon  every  person 
with  whom  he  has  dealt.  He  also  discovers  that, 
allowing  nothing  for  the  time  spent,  his  servants 
can  buy  more  cheaply  than  he,  even  when  their 
squeeze  is  added  to  the  proper  market  price.  Thus 
he  has  lost  not  only  time,  but  money,  in  his  effort 
at  reform. 

If  he  takes  pains  to  inform  himself  upon  the 
proper  prices  of  all  articles  used,  the  servant  de- 
ceives him  in  weight  or  measure,  charging  for  five 
pounds  when  he  has  bought  only  four.  Then 
perhaps  the  master  provides  himself  with  Chinese 
scales  and  measures  by  which  he  tests  every  pur- 
chase. He  is  then  happy  until  he  discovers  that 
his  scales  weigh  only  fourteen  ounces  to  tlie  pound, 
and  that  he  is  consequenth'  paying  a  squeeze  of 
twelve  and  one  half  per  cent.  Determined  not  t-) 
be  beaten,  tlie  employer  procures  a  pair  of  steel- 


J/EKC//AXTS  AXD    Th'/CXS   OF    TRADE.     307 

yards  llial  have  been  tested  and  found  to  be  full 
weight.  Tliese  are  kept  under  lock  and  key,  and 
at  last  he  is  confident  that  the  last  chance  for  de- 
ception has  vanislied.  Again  he  is  mistaken.  He 
has,  it  is  true,  weighed  his  poimd  of  mutton,  found 
it  full  weight,  and  for  it  paid  only  the  market 
price  ;  but  after  this  was  done,  and  the  master  had 
turned  away,  the  cook  cut  off  a  good-sized  pi(;ce 
from  the  joint,  which  he  returned  to  the  butcher, 
and  for  whicli  lie  received  payment. 

An  acquaintance  who  had  tried  all  the  expedi- 
ents given  here,  and  who  yet  was  suspicious  that, 
in  some  inconceivable  way,  he  was  still  being  cir- 
cumvented, summoned  his  cook  to  the  dining-room 
one  day  and  called  his  attention  to  the  extremely 
small  size  of  the  joint  of  roast  mutton  upon  the 
table.  To  this  the  cook,  grave  and  dignified,  with 
the  utmost  deference  in  tone  and  manner,  replied  : 
"  Your  Excellency  is  quite  correct.  The  joint 
does  seem  small  ;  but  your  Excellency  should  not 
fail  to  make  allowance  for  the  fact  that,  in  a  dry 
climate  like  Peking,  mutton  shrinks  much  more  in 
roasting  than  in  your  honorable  country." 

The  dismissal  of  a  servant  found  guilty  of  this 
practice  rarely  serves  any  good  purpose.  It  may, 
indeed,  be  found  later  that  his  successor  is  worse, 
not  merely  making  his  own  modest  profit,  but  pay- 
ing a  pension  to  the  man  discharged.  In  one  of 
the  Legations  in  Peking  years  ago  the  minister  de- 
termined to  suppress  the  practice,  and  dismissed 
the  porter,  or  gatekeeper,  who,  as  has  been  said,  is 
an  important  actor  in  the  system.  Long  after- 
ward  it   was   discovered   that   the    other  servants, 


3o8  THE  REAL    CHEVAMA.V. 

headed  by  the  new  gatekeeper,  had  regularly  paid 
the  discharged  servant  his  usual  wages  up  to  the 
day  of  his  death,  and  had  then  buried  him  with 
much  ceremony  and  expense.  They  had  a  book- 
keeper and  an  account  at  a  bank  where  all 
"  squeezes"  were  deposited.  Dividends  were  de- 
clared three  times  each  year. 

Arguments  with  the  Chinese  to  prove  the  essen- 
tial immorality  of  this  custom  are  useless.  It  is  a 
time-honored  institution,  which  may  be  kept  within 
moderate  proportions  by  a  little  care  and  watchful- 
ness, but  which  cannot  be  wholly  suppressed,  at 
least  until  the  entire  fabric  of  Oriental  character 
is  changed.  Chinese  suffer  from  the  practice  far 
more  than  foreigners,  since  the  latter  would  never 
hesitate  to  make  proper  inquiries  as  to  prices  of 
articles  in  use  ;  but  the  dignity  which  surrounds  a 
Chinese  official  allows  the  exercise  of  no  such 
precautions.  Hence  he  is  simply  a  helpless  vic- 
tim, to  be  squeezed  without  limit  or  fear  of  re- 
sults. 

It  may  be  said  that  the  many  devices  and  tricks 
which  have  been  hinted  at  rather  than  described 
as  characteristic  of  Chinese  merchants  are  not  at 
all  consonant  with  the  high  character  for  integrity 
and  upright  dealing  given  them  in  the  earlier  part 
of  the  chapter.  An  answer  to  such  a  criticism  is 
easily  found.  Human  nature  is  much  the  same  the 
world  over.  China  is  not  alone  in  the  possession 
of  a  large  class  of  men  who  are  scrupulous  in  the 
performance  of  every  business  obligation — men 
who  may  safely  be  trusted  to  any  extent,  whose 
word  has  all  tlie  validity  of  an  oath,  and  yet  who 


MERCHAXTS  AXD    TA'/Ck'S   OF    TNAIIK.     309 

will  not  hesitate  to  resort  to  the  pettiest  tricks  and 
schemes  to  increase  tlieir  profits.  Men  are  often 
great  in  great  affairs,  but  fearfully  small  and  mean 
in  little  thin<js. 


CHAPTER    XIV. 


THE     POOR     IN     CHINA 


The  opinion,  sometimes  expressed, 
that  the  Chinese  are  a  very  rich  people 
is  quite  erroneous.  While  the  empire 
is  rich  in  undeveloped  resources  and 
capabilities,  the  masses  of  the  popu- 
lation are  poor  vi^ith  a  poverty  of 
which  we  have  only  a  faint  conception.  The 
average  of  wealth  to  each  person  in  the  United 
States  is  many  times  greater  than  in  China.  The 
word  "  poverty"  does  not  convey  at  all  the  same 
idea  in  the  two  countries.  In  America  a  man 
is  called  poor  who  has  a  family  to  support  upon 
earnings  of,  perhaps,  two  dollars  a  day.  In  Chi- 
na such  a  man  would  be  looked  upon  as  living  in 
the  very  lap  of  luxury.  Here,  when  the  labor- 
ing man  cannot  afford  meat  twice  daily,  he  and 
those  dependent  upon  him  are  supposed  to  be 
upon  the  verge  of  hardship  and  destitution.  Meat 
is  cheaper  there  than  here,  yet  a  laborer  there,  re- 
ceiving what  he  considers  good  wages,  cannot 
afford  to  eat  a  pound  in  a  month.  Poverty  here 
means  a  narrov/  and  limited  supply  of  luxuries. 
There  it  means  actual  hunger  and  nakedness,  if 
not  starvation  within  sight. 

Of  course  in  China,  as  in  all  otlier  lands,  there 


THE   POOR   IX   CHINA.  31 1 

is  a  close  and  necessary  connection  between  the 
cost  of  food  and  the  price  of  labor.  If  wiiges  are 
very  low,  the  cost  of  such  articles  of  food  as  are 
absolutely  necessary  to  sustain  life  and  furnish 
strengtii  to  do  a  given  amount  of  work  must  be 
correspondingly  reduced,  or  death  from  starvation 
is  the  immediate  result.  The  Chinese  do  not  live 
poorly  because  they  desire  nothing  better.  Like 
all  other  men,  tliey  live  as  well  as  their  earnings  or 
resources  will  allow.  A  wealthy  Chinaman  dresses 
as  expensively,  though  in  a  different  style,  has  a 
table  as  lu.xurious,  though  his  taste  may  be  es- 
teemed peculiar,  and  generally  maintains  the  same 
elegance  as  his  Western  brother.  There,  as  every- 
where else,  the  income  must  control  the  expense. 
Skilled  laborers  in  China  earn  from  ten  to  thirty 
cents  in  silver  eacli  day,  the  average  coming  below 
twenty.  Unskilled  laborers,  or  men  who,  in  the 
expressive  language  of  the  country,  "  sell  their 
strength,"  earn  from  five  to  ten  cents  each  day, 
the  average  not  rising  above  seven.  This  meagre 
sum,  in  a  country  where  biichelors  and  old  maids 
are  unknown,  must  furnish  the  entire  support  of 
the  man  himself,  and  from  one  to  four  or  five  other 
persons.  I  have  often  hired  a  special  messenger 
to  travel  a  distance  of  thirty  miles  for  eight  cents. 
Boatmen  are  regularly  hired  to  track  a  native  boat, 
pulling  it  against  the  stream  from  Tientsin  to 
Tungcho,  a  distance  of  one  liundred  and  twenty- 
five  miles,  for  fifty  cents  and  their  food  one  way. 
They  make  the  return  journey  on  foot — that  is, 
they  travel  a  greater  distance  than  that  separating 
Boston  and  New  York  for   fifty  cents  in  silver  and 


312  THE   REAL    CHIXAMAN. 

one  half  of  their  food.  Countless  multitudes  of 
Chinese  earn  a  living  by  gathering  offal  on  country 
roads,  and  it  is  nothing  unusual  to  see  a  lively 
scrimmage  between  twelve  or  fifteen  men  and  boys 
for  the  possession  of  a  heap  of  horse-manure. 
This  may  serve  to  indicate  what  poverty  means  in 
China.  To  an  immense  number  of  the  people,  fail- 
ure of  work  for  one  day  carries  with  it,  as  an  in- 
evitable sequence,  failure  of  any  sort  of  food  for 
the  same  period. 

From  the  prices  paid  for  labor,  as  given  above, 
it  is  not  a  difficult  matter  to  estimate  the  extremely 
narrow  limits  within  which  the  daily  expenditures 
of  a  majority  of  the  four  hundred  millions  of  Chi- 
nese must  be  kept.  The  difficulty  lies  in  discover- 
ing how  they  live  at  all.  Their  daily  food  consists 
of  rice  steamed,  cabbage  boiled  in  an  unnecessarily 
large  quantity  of  water,  and  for  a  relish,  a  few  bits 
of  raw  turnip,  pickled  in  a  strong  brine.  When 
disposed  to  be  very  extravagant  and  reckless  of 
expense,  they  buy  a  cash  worth  of  dried  water- 
melon seeds,  and  munch  them  as  a  dessert.  In 
summer  they  eat  raw  cucumbers,  skin,  prickles, 
and  all,  raw  carrots  or  turnips,  or,  perhaps,  a 
melon,  not  wasting  the  rind.  In  certain  parts  of 
the  empire  wheat  flour,  oat,  or  cornmeal  takes  the 
place  of  rice.  With  this  variation  the  description 
answers  with  entire  accuracy  for  the  food  consump- 
tion of  the  great  masses  of  the  Chinese  people — not 
for  the  beggars  or  the  very  poor,  but  for  the  com- 
mon classes  of  industrious  workingmen  and  their 
families,  whether  in  the  great  cities  or  in  the  rural 
districts. 


THE   POOR   IX   ClflXA.  313 

1  once  had  occasion  to  spend  the  night  at  a  Bud- 
dhist temple  beautifully  located  in  a  ravine  of  the 
mountains,  about  a  hundred  miles  east  of  Peking. 
It  was  in  October,  and  the  priests,  though  accus- 
tomed to  entertain  Chinese  guests,  had  no  other 
articles  of  food  than  raw  chestnuts  and  delicious 
water  from  a  spring  which  bubbled  from  the  rocks 
within  the  temple  enclosure.  When  I  commented 
upon  this  meagre  fare,  the  aged  abbot  in  charge 
seemed  surprised,  and  said  :  "  But  you  don't  know 
how  fine  our  chestnuts  are.  They  are  not  at  all 
like  ordinary  fruit.  Eat  a  pound  of  them  and 
drink  plenty  of  water,  and  your  hunger  will  be  sat- 
isfied."     Doubtless   it  would. 

Upon  another  occasion,  while  traveling  in  the 
western  part  of  China  with  some  companions,  we 
reached,  late  one  Saturday  night,  an  inn  where 
the  only  article  of  food  obtainable  was  wheat  flour 
moistened  with  water,  then  rolled  flat  and  thin, 
cut  into  strips,  and  thrown  for  a  moment  into  a 
kettle  of  boiling  water.  It  was  tasteless,  tough  as 
leather,  and  as  indigestible.  The  inn  furnished 
nothing  else,  nor  could  anything  be  procured  in 
the  village,  though  after  long  search  an  obliging 
native  managed  to  provide  us  with  some  eggs. 
The  next  day  our  servant  discovered  a  Chinese 
peddling  meat  upon  the  street,  and,  in  spite  of  the 
day,  bought  some,  as  we  were  really  suffering  from 
hunger.  It  was  already  cooked,  so  he  hastily 
warmed  up  a  large  portion,  which  was  placed  be- 
fore us.  The  flavor  was  so  suspicious,  that  a  sin- 
gle mouthful  satisfied  our  hunger  and  aroused  our 
curiosity.      The  servant  said,   in   answer  to   ques- 


314  THE   REAL    CIIEVAMA.V. 

tions,  that,  while  he  had  not  uiquired,  he  judged 
the  meat  to  be  beef,  and  that  he  had  purchased  it 
from  an  old  man  with  a  wheelbarrow  load  only  a 
short  distance  from  the  inn.  We  went  in  search 
of  the  old  man,  whom  we  soon  found,  and  with 
whom  the  following  conversation  took  place  : 

"  How  do  you  do.  Venerable  Sir  ?  How  is  trade 
to-day?" 

"  Excellent.  I  had  a  heaping  wheelbarrow  load, 
and  have  sold  all  but  the  few  pieces  that  you  see." 

"  What  sort  of  meat  are  you  selling  ?    Beef  ?" 

"  No,  it  is  not  beef.  I  am  a  farmer  living  in  a 
village  a  few  miles  away.  I  had  an  old  mule  that 
was  taken  sick  and  died.  I  could  not  afford  to 
lose  it,  so  I  sold  the  hide  and  cooked  the  carcass, 
and  have  sold  every  pound  of  it  except  what  you 
see  here." 

Upon  another  occasion,  while  traveling  in  the 
northwestern  part  of  China  with  two  companions, 
we  lost  our  way.  We  had  walked  on  ahead  of  our 
drivers,  mules,  baggage,  and  servants,  had  taker 
the  wrong  road,  and  in  consequence  found  our- 
selves at  dark  on  a  bitter  cold  day  in  December  in 
an  inn  without  our  own  attendants,  and,  as  we 
found  upon  counting  and  combining  our  resources, 
with  exactly  one  hundred  pieces  of  cash — al)()ut 
ten  cents — with  which  to  pay  for  food  and  lodging. 
The  inn  was  better  than  the  averiige,  and  was  sup- 
plied with  all  the  varieties  of  food  which  the  region 
afforded.  We  had  supper,  lodging,  and  break- 
fast, as  good  in  every  respect  as  the  inn  or  the  vil- 
lage could  have  furnished  at  any  price,  paid  our 
bill,  with  the  usual  gratuity  to  the  servants,  and 


THE  POOR   JX    CHIXA.  315 

had  twelve  cash  remaining  in  hand.  Six  meals 
and  lodging  for  three  men  were  furnished  for  less 
than  nine  cents  !  But,  to  tell  the  truth,  the  bill 
of  fare  was  wholesome,  but  simple  in  the  extreme. 
It  consisted  of  Irish  potatoes — tliere  called  earth 
eggs — boiled  and  eaten  with  salt,  and  oatmeal 
gruel  seasoned  in  the  same  way.  The  bed  was  the 
usual  brick  platform  covered  with  a  clean  mat  and 
made  warm  by  a  good  coal  fire.  There  was  no 
bedding,  as  travelers  in  China  always  carry  their 
own,  and  ours  was  with  our  mules  ;  but  arctic 
overshoes  did  duty  for  a  pillow,  and  for  the  rest, 
we  slept  as  we  had  traveled,  and  suffered  no  in- 
convenience or  discomfort. 

These  three  incidents  of  personal  experience 
occurred  at  points  distant  many  hundred  miles 
each  from  the  other,  in  different  sections  of  the 
Cliinese  Empire.  Two  of  them  were  met  with  in 
villages  upon  great  highways  of  travel,  where  thou- 
sands pass  and  are  entertained  every  month,  Tliey 
are  given  to  enforce  the  statements  made  regard- 
ing the  extremely  simple  habits  and  narrow  range 
of  food  of  the  poorer  but  comparatively  well-to-do 
classes  among  the  Chinese.  It  is  plain  and  frugal 
in  the  extreme,  and  even  then  must  be  bought 
meal  by  meal,  as  it  is  needed.  An  ordinary  Chi- 
nese workingman  would  be  far  less  likely  to  be 
able  to  purchase  supplies  for  his  family  in  any 
quantity,  than  a  man  of  the  same  rank  of  life  here 
would  be  to  purchase  several  thousand  dollars' 
worth  of  bonds  or  otlier  securities.  One  of  the 
most  common  sights  in  any  city  or  town  of  China 
is  that  of  a  boy  or  girl  with  three  or  four  pieces  of 


3l6  THE   REAL    CHIXAMAX. 

cash  in  one  hand  and  a  couple  of  dishes  of  coarse 
pottery  in  the  other  going,  with  great  dignity  and 
importance,  to  purchase  the  materials  for  the  family 
dinner,  and  the  fuel  with  which  to  cook  it.  The 
bill  of  expenditures  would  run  somewhat  as  fol- 
lows :  Charcoal,  one  cash  ;  rice  or  flour,  two  cash  ; 
cabbage,  one  cash.  On  occasions  of  prosperity  an- 
other cash  would  be  spent  for  oil  or  soy,  and  on 
very  rare  and  exceptional  festive  days  still  another 
would  be  invested  in  purchasing  about  a  teaspoon- 
ful  of  weak  alcohol,  to  be  drank  hot  with  the  meal. 

The  clothing  of  the  Chinese  poor  is  as  simple  as 
the  diet.  In  the  summer  it  consists  of  shoes  and 
stockings,  both  made  of  cotton  cloth,  and  trousers, 
unlined,  of  the  same  material.  A  jacket  or  blouse, 
also  of  cotton,  completes  his  apparel,  but  this  gar- 
ment is  frequently  omitted  if  the  temperature  will 
permit. 

In  spring  and  autumn  the  poor  man  wears,  if  he 
can  afford  them,  garments  of  the  same  material 
lined.  In  the  winter,  in  a  climate  like  that  of  New 
York  or  Philadelphia,  his  trousers  are  wadded, 
and  his  upper  garment  is  either  also  wadded,  or  is 
a  sheepskin  tanned  with  the  wool  on,  which  is 
worn  next  the  skin.  He  has  no  knowledge  of  un- 
derclothing of  any  sort.  One  suit  answers  for  all 
hours,  since  he  sleeps  in  the  same  clothes  in  which 
he  Avorks.  Three  dollars  would  be  more  than 
sufficient  to  buy  the  entire  summer  wardrobe  of 
what  may  be  called  a  comfortably  poor  Chinese — 
that  is,  one  at  work  on  steady  wages.  Twenty-five 
or  thirty  cents  would  be  more  than  the  value  of 
the  rags  worn  by  the  very  poor.     One  peculiarity 


THJ'.    rOOK  IX  CHINA.  319 

of  the  beggar  class  is  worth}^  of  notice.  They  in- 
variably wear  shoes.  The  usual  covering  of  a 
lusty  Chinese  beggar  is  a  bowl  with  which  to  re- 
ceive donations  of  food  or  money,  and  a  pair  of 
shoes.  He  may  not  have  the  bowl,  but  his  feet 
are  always  covered.  A  barefooted  Chinaman  is 
never  seen. 

The  house  of  the  poor  man  in  China  is  built 
either  of  sun-dried  or  broken  brick  laid  up  in  mud, 
and  roofed  sometimes  with  tiles,  but  more  com- 
monly with  a  mixture  of  lime  and  clay  spread  upon 
reed  mats.  It  is  never  more  than  one  story  in 
height,  and  for  a  family  of  five  or  six  persons  sel- 
dom consists  of  more  than  one  room.  It  has  a 
floor  of  either  mud  or  brick,  never  of  boards,  win- 
dows of  paper,  and  a  door  sufficiently  open  for  all 
purposes  of  ventilation.  It  has  no  chimney,  and 
no  fire  is  used  summer  or  winter,  except  the  small 
amount  necessary  for  the  family  cooking.  The 
entire  furniture  consists  of  a  table,  a  stool  or  two, 
a  wardrobe  when  it  can  be  afforded,  and  a  raised 
platform  of  brick  covered  with  a  coarse  mat  of 
reeds,  which  serves  for  the  family  bed.  Flues  run 
underneath  this,  and  the  smoke  and  heat  from  the 
fire  used  in  cooking  passes  through  them,  thus 
securing  a  small  amount  of  warmth.  In  southern 
China  the  brick  platform  is  replaced  by  one  built 
of  bamboo  or  some  other  inexpensive  wood. 

It  is  to  be  feared  that  men  of  Western  lands,  if 
asked  the  question  whether,  under  such  circum- 
stances and  conditions,  life  is  worth  living,  vvould 
answer  in  the  negative.  And  it  could  not  be  a 
matter    for    surprise    if    such    abject    poverty    de- 


320  THE  REAL    CHIXAMAN. 

veloped  great  selfishness,  indifference  to  the  suffer- 
ings of  others,  and  general  disregard  of  the  com- 
mon obligations  of  humanity  ;  yet  in  simple  justice 
it  must  be  said  that  such  is  not  the  fact.  In  China, 
as  elsewhere,  it  is  not  the  wealthy  but  the  poor  who 
are  most  prompt  and  liberal,  in  proportion  to  their 
resources,  to  respond  to  the  necessities  of  those 
even  more  unfortunate  than  themselves.  Much 
might  be  written  of  the  many  pleasant  phases  of 
Chinese  life  among  the  poor,  which  is  developed 
by  their  extreme  poverty,  their  patience  and  quiet 
endurance,  their  readiness  to  help  each  other,  and 
their  faithful  care,  even  when  suffering  the  utmost 
depths  of  want,  of  the  aged  and  infirm.  It  should 
also  not  be  forgotten  that  from  such  homes  have 
come,  in  a  very  large  measure,  the  distinguished 
scholars  and  statesmen  who  have  been  the  practical 
rulers  of  the  nation,  and  have  given  her  a  litera- 
ture and  a  history  of  which,  in  some  features  at 
least,  she  has  no  cause  to  be  ashamed.  Life  has 
some  pleasant  pictures,  some  lessons  worthy  to  be 
learned,  even  in  the  poverty  and  hunger  of  a  Chi- 
nese hovel. 

China  has  for  many  centuries  been  confronted 
with  the  exact  reverse  of  the  problem  with  which 
the  United  States  foi  the  greater  part  of  its  exist- 
ence has  had  to  deal.  With  us  the  practical  ques- 
tion has  been,  at  least  until  recently,  by  what  labor- 
saving  devices  one  man  may  be  enabled  to  accom- 
plisli  the  work  of  ten.  The  result  here  is  what 
might  have  been  expected.  Necessity  has  spurred 
ingenuity,  and  Americans  lead  the  world  in  the 
invention   of  labor-saving  machines  of  every  sort. 


THE   POOR   IX   CHINA. 


321 


In  China  the  opposite  question  has  been  a  subject 
of  constant  and  anxious  study  from  a  period  far 
antedating  the  discovery  of  tliis  Western  Conti- 
nent. It  may  be  stated  in  these  words  :  With  an 
excessive  population,  how  may  any  given  piece  of 


MENDEK.    OK   TUBS. 


work  be  so  divided  and  subdivided  as  to  furnish 
the  barest  sustenance  to  tlie  hirgest  possible  num- 
ber of  persons  ?  One  result  of  the  study  of  this 
problem  is  also  what  might  have  been  anticipated. 
The  Chinese  are   llie  most    economical    race   upon 


32  2  THE  REAL    CHINAMAN. 

the  face  of  the  earth.  If  they  lack  in  the  broader 
field  of  ingenuity,  they  are  easily  the  ingenious 
masters  of  the  science  and  art  of  economics. 

Absolutely  nothing  is  wasted.  The  smallest 
rags  and  shreds  of  cloth  are  saved,  carefully  pasted 
together,  and  form  the  insole  of  shoes.  Bits  of 
woods  are  ingeniously  glued  and  dovetailed  into 
other  bits,  until  a  board  or  post  is  literally  built 
up.  Half  the  houses  in  the  city  of  Peking  are 
built  of  fragments  of  brick  which  have  been  in  use 
for  centuries,  and  may  continue  to  do  duty  for 
centuries  to  come.  A  large  business  is  done  in 
the  capital  in  making  lamps  from  the  discarded 
sardine,  oyster,  and  other  cans.  In  the  country 
the  weeds  and  grass  by  the  roadside  are  carefully 
gathered  by  women  and  children,  the  entire  sur- 
face being  scratched  over  and  over  again,  and  this 
refuse  does  duty  as  fuel.  The  roots  of  corn  and 
other  grains  are  carefully  spaded  up,  the  earth 
beaten  from  then,  and  when  dried  in  the  sun  they 
serve  the  same  useful  purpose. 

In  many  of  these  lines  it  is  cheaper  to  us  to  waste 
than  to  save,  and  what  is  true  economy  among  the 
Chinese  would  be  false  economy  with  us.  But 
there  labor  counts  for  little — is  indeed  the  cheapest 
article  in  the  market  ;  hence  its  employment,  even 
where  the  results  are  of  the  most  trifling  nature, 
is  wise. 

And  among  the  poorer  classes  every  one  works. 
The  solitary  exception  is  the  infant  too  young  to 
walk,  and  he,  safely  deposited  upon  his  back  on  a 
mat,  lies  quietly  doubling  his  fists  and  blinking  at 
the  sun,  whicti  is  liis  part  in  the  labors  of  the  day. 


THE    POOR    l.V   CI//.VA.  323 

Certain  processes  in  the  preparation  of  tea  and  silk 
are  reserved  exclusively  for  women  and  girls,  who 
earn  from  one  to  three  cents  a  day  by  this  labor. 
The  straw  braid  from  which  our  hats  are  made 
comes  from  one  of  the  northern  provinces  of  China. 
It  is  woven  by  women  and  children,  who  rarely 
can  earn  more  than  two  cents  a  day  in  the  work. 

While  the  government  of  China  makes  no  regu- 
lar provision  for  the  support  of  the  pauper  element 
among  its  people,  it  tacitly  recognizes  begging  as 
a  legitimate  occupation.  It  never  interferes  with 
or  restrains  it.  Thus,  if  a  crowd  of  fifty  or  a  hun- 
dred creatures,  so  filthy  and  diseased  as  to  be  hardly 
recognizable  as  human  beings,  should  beset  the 
entrance  to  a  store  or  office,  and  refuse  to  move  on 
until  their  demands  for  money  were  granted,  it 
would  be  idle  for  the  proprietor  to  appeal  to  the 
police.  He  would  be  met  with  the  answer,  "  Give 
them  what  they  ask.  The  amount  is  small,  and 
then  they  will  go  away."  There  is  a  shade  of 
reason  in  such  a  reply.  Begging,  like  everything 
else,  is  reduced  to  a  system  in  China.  Beggars 
never  go  in  crowds  or  even  in  pairs.  Each  has  his 
district,  and  only  calls  in  others  when  he  has  been 
repulsed,  or,  as  he  conceives,  been  treated  with 
scant  courtesy.  He  never  expects  more  than  a  sin- 
gle cash.  It  is  a  mistake  to  give  him  this  small 
sum  too  promptly,  for  in  such  case  he  will  come 
again  too  soon.  He  must  be  kept  waiting  for  it  a 
certain  length  of  time,  so  as  to  earn  it  ;  but  it  is  a 
far  more  serious  mistake  to  insult  him  or  send 
him  away  empty-handed.  He  will  come  again  the 
day  following  with  two  or  three  companions,  each 


324  THE   REAL    CHINAMAN. 

more  filthy  than  the  other,  and  less  than  half  a 
dollar  will  fail  to  satisfy  them.  If  they  are  again 
refused,  the  place  is  soon  fairly  besieged  with  a 
throng  of  a  hundred  or  more,  and  at  least  a  hun- 
dred dollars  must  then  be  expended  instead  of  the 
single  cash  which  would  have  satisfied  the  solitary 
mendicant  who  first  appealed  for  alms. 

Many  merchants  and  shopkeepers  in  the  larger 
cities  pay  a  regular  monthly  allowance,  agreed 
upon.  A  sign,  cabalistic  but  well  understood  by 
the  begging  fraternity,  is  written  upon  the  door- 
posts of  such  as  make  this  arrangement,  and  they 
are  only  visited  by  tlie  "  collector"  upon  a  fixed 
day,  who  then  receives  and  receipts  for  the  com- 
mutation or  blackmail  ;  and  those  who  decline  to 
enter  into  such  an  arrangement  very  rarely  refuse 
to  give  the  single  cash  demanded,  as  they  know 
by  experience  the  results  which  are  certain  to 
follow. 

Peking,  like  all  Oriental  cities,  swarms  with  beg- 
gars. They  are  met  with  everywhere,  in  every 
condition  of  filth,  and  of  real  or  counterfeit  de- 
formity or  disease.  They  are  of  both  sexes  and 
all  ages.  Begging  is  with  thejm  a  business,  a  pro- 
fession, to  which  they  are  trained  from  infancy, 
and  in  which  some  attain  great  success.  It  is  as 
easy  to  distinguish  a  professional  beggar  from  an 
amateur — that  is,  from  a  man  driven  by  misfortune 
to  ask  relief — as  it  is  to  discriminate  between  a 
horse  and  a  mule. 

Peking  beggars  have  a  regular  guild  or  organi- 
zation, presided  over  by  a  king  and  a  queen.  These 
officers  are  elective,   and  hence,   so  far  as  I  have 


77/y-;   J'OOK  /.V   CIIIXA.  327 

been  able  to  learn,  the  mendicants  of  the  capital 
are  the  only  Chinese  in  the  empire  who  are  per- 
mitted to  exercise  the  privileges  of  the  ballot. 
The  king  is  said  never  to  be  seen  by  profane  eyes, 
but  I  have  had  a  conversation  with  the  queen, 
who  appeared  to  be  a  respectable,  well-dressed 
Chinese  lady  of  sixty-five  or  seventy  years  of  age. 
The  entire  city  is  carefully  divided  into  districts, 
and  no  beggar  is  allowed  to  intrude  upon  the  ter- 
ritory of  another.  Still  this  calling,  like  all  others, 
has  its  black  sheep.  There  iire  tramp  beggars, 
not  members  of  the  guild,  who  roam  everywhere 
in  city  and  country,  bound  by  no  limits,  and  heed- 
less of  the  rights  of  others.  They  are  regarded 
with  contempt  as  being  guilty  of  unprofessional 
and  discredital)le  conduct  l)y  those  members  of 
the  fraternity  who  confine  themselves  each  to  his 
own  vineyard  and  harvest  field. 

'  Chinese  mendicants  are  past  masters  in  the  art 
of  simulating  disease  or  deformity  of  every  sort. 
I  was  for  a  long  time  annoyed  in  my  daily  walks  in 
Peking  by   a  young  Chinese   woman,  who   would 

;    follow  me,  carrying  one  child  and  leading  another. 

\  While  screaming  out  uncouth  sounds  at  the  top  of 
her  voice,  she  indicated  by  gestures  that  she  was 
deaf  and  dumb,  the  two  children  keeping  up  a  sort 
of  minor  refrain  by  the  wailing  cry,  "  Have  pity 
and  give  a  cash  !     Have  pity  and  give   a  cash  !" 

'  For  some  reason  hard  to  define,  I  suspected  that 
the  creature  had  the  full  natural  use  of  both  her 
ears  and  mouth.  In  order  to  test  tlie  cpiestion, 
one  day,  when  she  was  more  than  usually  annoy- 
ing and   was   crying  after   me   in   the   midst  of  a 


328  THE  REAL    CHINAMAN. 

crowd,  I  turned  suddenly  upon  her  and  said  some- 
thing which,  while  not  improper,  would,  if  she 
could  hear  it,  certainly  make  her  angry.  She  re- 
plied instantly  in  remarkably  good  Chinese  with  a 
torrent  of  vile  language,  and  then,  amid  roars  of 
laughter  from  the  crowd,  she  suddenly  realized 
that  she  had  betrayed  herself,  and  slunk  out  of 
sight.  Thereafter  she  always  recognized  me  pleas- 
antly when  we  met,  but  never  begged  of  me. 

I  well  remember  one  case  among  all  the  wretch- 
edness and  revolting  sights  found  in  the  beggar 
class  of  Peking  which  moved  my  pity,  and  which, 
as  a  solitary  exception  to  my  rule,  was  for  several 
months  regularly  relieved.  It  was  an  old  man, 
ragged  and  shivering  with  cold,  who  sat  every  day 
by  the  side  of  the  street.  He  was  clothed  in  only 
a  few  rags,  and  thrust  out  in  front  of  him  were  his 
feet,  which  were  literally  rotting  off.  They  pre- 
sented a  sight  too  offensive  for  more  detailed  de- 
scription. One  day  I  missed  the  old  man  from  his 
accustomed  place,  but  walking  rapidly  homeward, 
I  overtook  him  trudging  along,  and  no  signs  of 
frozen  feet  and  decomposition  were  visible. 

"  Why,"  said  I,  walking  along  by  his  side,  "  how 
can  you  manage  to  walk  with  those  wretched 
feet?" 

"  Oh,"  said  the  old  man,  "  they  are  in  my 
bosom.     It  would  spoil  them  to  wear  them  home." 

Then,  without  hesitation  or  sign  of  shame,  he 
thrust  his  hands  into  his  bosom  and  drew  out  a 
pair  of  socks  padded  with  cotton  in  order  to  rep- 
resent his  feet  as  swollen  and  out  of  shape.  They 
were   made  of   canvas,  and   so   accurately   painted 


THE   POOR   IX   C///XA.  329 

into  the  resemblance  of  feet  with  toenails  dropping 
off  and  the  flesh  a  mass  of  putrefaction,  that  they 
had  deceived  me  in  broad  sunlight  and  on  many 
occasions. 

Naturally  I  was  furious,  and  said  :  "1  should 
think  that  an  old  man  like  you  would  be  ashamed 
to  swindle  people  in  this  way.  Have  you  no  trade, 
or  are  you  too  lazy  to  earn  your  rice  in  any  honest 
fashion  ?' 

To  which  the  venerable  humbug  replied  as  sim- 
ply and  frankly  as  though  his  recent  deception  had 
been  quite  respectable  and  praiseworthy  :  "  Oh, 
yes,  I  am  a  shoemaker  ;  and  I  have  been  think- 
ing about  giving  up  this  line  of  business,  for  my 
feet  are  getting  to  be  too  well  known,  and  it  does 
not  pay  as  well  as  it  did.  After  all,  it  is  hard  work 
sitting  there  upon  the  ground  all  day  and  shouting 
out,  '  Have  pity  ! '  I  believe  that  I  will  go  back  to 
my  old  trade  of  mending  shoes." 

In  a  day  or  two  he  appeared  with  his  kit  of  tools 
and  his  bench,  and  asked  permission  to  establish 
himself  quite  near  the  entrance  of  the  Legation,  by 
the  side  of  the  street,  which  was  granted.  There 
he  cobbled  shoes  for  nearly  ten  years,  when  he 
died  ;  and  his  son,  who  "  succeeded  to  the  title 
and  estates,"  asked  assistance  to  bury  the  old  man, 
basing  his  plea  upf)n  the  close  intimacy  which  had 
so  long  existed  between  us. 


CHAPTER   XV. 


CHINESE    FINANCIAL    SYSTEM. 


An  ounce  of  refined  silver  bullion 
constitutes  the  unit  of  money  in  the 
Chinese  Empire.  Copper  cash  and 
paper  notes  comprise  the  subsidiary- 
currency  in  use  among  the  people. 
Mexican  dollars  are  used  to  a  con- 
siderable extent  in  those  parts  of  the  country  where 
foreign  trade  has  been  developed,  but  they  are  in- 
variably valued  by  weight,  and  a  large  proportion 
of  those  imported  soon  find  their  way  to  the  melt- 
ing-pot, where  they  are  refined,  and  whence  they 
reappear  as  bullion.  A  variety  of  causes  have  pro- 
duced this  apparently  absurd  treatment  of  coins 
recognized  as  standard  in  weight  and  fineness 
throughout  all  parts  of  the  world  except  China. 

The  Oriental  merchant  and  man  of  business  has 
a  wonderfully  accurate  eye  in  determining  the 
quality  of  native  bullion.  The  signs  by  which  he 
judges  each  piece  are  necessarily  lacking  in  minted 
coins,  and  he  has  no  proof,  save  what  is  to  him  a 
vague  and  unreliable  assurance,  that  such  coins 
contain  only  an  invariable  amount  of  alloy.  Hence, 
he  prefers  to  reduce  them  to  the  simpler  primary 
form  to  wliich  he  is  accustomed,  and  in  which 
his   keen    eyes    can    determine    at    a    swift    glance 


CiriXKSE   FINANCIAL    SYSTEM.  331 

their  actual  value.  His  own  government  has  never 
received,  paid,  or  recognized  any  other  form  of 
money  than  pure  silver  bullion. 

A  custom  sprang  up  in  the  ports  of  southern 
China,  where  Spanish  and  Mexican  dollars  were 
first  introduced,  which,  while  intended  to  assure 
the  natives  of  the  reliability  of  these  coins,  had  the 
inevitable  effect  to  drive  every  one  of  them,  sooner 
or  later,  to  the  refiners.  Native  bankers  adopted 
the  priictice  of  stamping  their  firm  name,  with  a 
steel  die,  upon  the  face  of  every  dollar  which 
passed  over  their  counters,  thus  making  themselves 
responsible  for  its  redemption  at  full  value.  Thus 
one  firm  after  another  would  cut  its  name  into  the 
face  of  a  coin,  and,  under  this  process  of  authenti- 
cation, the  money  speedily  become  battered  out  of 
all  shape  or  possibility  of  recognition,  and  was 
literally  punched  full  of  holes.  Then  they  ceased 
to  pass  as  dollars  by  couut^  but  were  still  current 
by  weight  for  a  time,  tlieir  final  destiny  always 
being  the  melting-pot. 

Some  years  ago  a  distinguished  American  lady, 
while  visiting  Canton,  desired  to  draw  five  hun- 
dred Mexican  dollars  upon  her  letter  of  credit, 
with  which  to  make  some  purchases.  Her  banker 
advised  her  not  to  take  the  actual  coin,  but  to  give 
each  merchant  with  whom  she  dealt  an  order  upon 
him  for  the  amount  of  her  purchase.  He  would 
then  deduct  the  sum  total  of  her  expenditures 
from  her  letter  of  credit.  As  she  declined  to  follow 
this  course,  preferring  to  pay  her  own  bills,  the 
banker  brought  her  the  required  sum  in  a  canvas 
bag,  and  spread  the  money  out  that  she  might  by 


332  THE   REAL    CHINAMAN. 

count  assure  herself  of  its  correctness.  It  resem- 
bled nothing  so  much  as  battered  bits  and  scraps 
of  old  tin.  There  was  not  one  piece  in  the  lot 
which  could  be  counted  as  a  dollar,  or  whose  value 
could  be  determined  except  by  weight  ;  yet  it  was 
the  nearest  approach  to  "  clean  Mexican  dollars" 
then  obtainable  at  Canton. 

The  imperial  government  has  its  own  standard 
of  weight,  called  the  "  treasury  ounce,"  by  which 
it  receives  and  disburses  all  sums,  and  it  only  ac- 
cepts or  pays  bullion  of  ninety-eight  per  cent  fine- 
ness ;  but  it  exercises  no  scrutiny  over  the  com- 
mercial transactions  of  its  subjects.  There  are  no 
laws  calculated  to  regulate  the  weight  of  an  ounce 
or  the  quality  of  bullion  ;  hence  there  is  an  utter 
lack  of  uniformity  in  both  of  these  essential  par- 
ticulars. Making  no  allowance  for  individual  at- 
tempts to  get  or  give  more  or  less  than  fair  weight, 
there  are  five  different  ounces  recognized  and  in 
daily  use  in  Peking  alone.  These  are  the  "  two- 
ounce"  weight,  as  it  is  called,  in  which  ninety- 
eight  ounces  are  reckoned  as  one  hundred  ;  in 
other  words,  it  is  two  per  cent  short  of  true  meas- 
ure. This  is  the  lightest  of  all.  Next  comes  the 
*'  commercial  ounce  ;"  then  what  is  known  as  the 
"  official  ounce  ;"  then  the  "  treasury  ounce,"  al- 
ready mentioned  ;  and  last,  and  heaviest  of  all,  the 
"  customs  ounce."  This  last  is  a  modern  innova- 
tion, having  been  in  use  for  less  than  thirty  years. 
It  is  the  measure  by  which  import  and  export  duties 
are  levied  and  paid.  For  some  inexplicable  reason 
it  is  heavier  than  the  ounce  adopted  by  the  govern- 
ment. 


CIIIXESE    FIXAXCfAL    SYSTEM.  l^i, 

The  ounces  in  use  in  the  capital  differ,  aj^ain, 
from  those  used  in  other  cities  and  districts  of  the 
empire,  which  in  turn  differ  among  themselves. 
There  is  no  stanchird  ounce  weight  in  use  every- 
where for  weighing  silver,  excepting  the  treasury- 
weight,  and  that  is  only  used  in  transactions  with 
the  government.  That  such  a  lack  of  uniformity 
should  produce  great  inconvenience  and  no  little 
uncertainty  in  the  results  of  business  operations  is 
evident.  Bankers  and  those  who  have  occasion  to 
remit  sums  of  money,  either  by  drafts  or  in  bulk, 
from  one  point  to  another,  are  familiar  with  the 
difference  in  the  ounce  weights  between  the  two 
cities,  and  make  the  necessary  allowances. 

Custom,  in  one  of  the  peculiar  freaks  which  it  so 
often  exhibits  in  China,  has  established  ii  rule  that 
certain  classes  of  transactions  shall  be  paid  in  a 
certain  kind  of  ounce  weight,  if  no  particular 
weight  is  named  in  the  agreement.  Thus,  in 
Peking,  house  rent  may  be  paid  in  the  lightest 
ounce  ;  bills  due  to  merchants  or  shopkeepers  are 
payable  in  the  market,  or  "  commercial"  ounce, 
while  other  accounts  must  be  l)alanced  with  a 
heavier  measure.  It  is  impossil)le  to  discover  the 
origin  or  reason  of  this  rule  of  trade,  nor  does  it 
prevent  a  native  entitled,  according  to  its  dictum, 
to  the  lightest  ounce,  from  claiming  the  heaviest. 
It  exercises  a  sort  of  moral  restraint  upon  liim,  willi 
the  result  that,  after  a  due  expenditure  of  argu- 
ment and  expostulation,  he  will  magnanimously, 
and  with  great  show  of  virtue,  abate  his  original 
demand  and  accept  what  this  custom  prescribes, 
and  all  that  he  has  at  any  moment,  in  the  height 


334  THE  REAL   CHINAMAN. 

of  his  vocal  gymnastics,  expected  to  receive.  No 
person  exceeds  the  Chinaman  in  his  belief  in  the 
old  saying  that  it  never  does  any  harm  to  try. 

Government  has  nothing  whatever  to  do  with 
refining  silver  bullion.  This  process  is  entirely  in 
the  hands  of  private  individuals  or  firms.  It  is 
commonly  cast  into  an  oval  form  resembling  in 
some  faint  degree  the  shape  of  a  Chinese  shoe,  and 
hence  known  among  foreign  residents  as  a  "  shoe" 
of  silver.  The  more  common  size  averages  about 
fifty  ounces  in  weight,  though  smaller  ingots  of 
about  ten  ounces  are  also  cast.  These  regular 
sizes  are  chopped  or  cut  into  smaller  bits  or  frag- 
ments in  order  to  make  the  exact  sum  needed  in 
any  payment.  Refiners  stamp  their  firm  name 
upon  the  surface  of  each  block  of  bullion  and  a 
mark  indicating  the  purity  of  the  metal,  and  in 
the  case  of  well-known  firms  this  mark  may  be 
safely  accepted  as  correct.  As  has  already  been 
said,  Chinese  merchants  and  men  of  business  have 
a  marvelously  keen  eye  and  accurate  judgment  of 
the  fineness  of  any  piece  of  bullion  cast  according 
to  their  methods.  The  mould  is  made  principally 
of  asbestos.  The  metal  is  poured  into  this,  given 
a  single  sudden  shake,  and  then  dumped.  Upon 
the  surface  of  the  "  shoe"  will  be  found  a  number 
of  tiny  waves,  and  upon  the  sides  and  bottom  a 
number  of  pin-holes  in  tlie  metal.  These  furnish 
the  two  most  important  tests  of  tlie  purity  of  the 
metal.  The  greater  the  number  and  the  less  the 
size  of  these  waves  and  pin-holes,  the  higher  the 
grade  of  the  silver. 

An  essential   part  of  every  business   transaction 


CHINESE   FEVAXCfAI.    SYSTEM.  335 

of  any  amount  in  China  is  the  stipulation  fixing 
tlie  weight  of  the  ounce  to  l)e  employed  and  the 
quality  of  the  bullion  in  which  the  specified  sum  is 
to  be  paid  or  received.  It  was  once  my  duty  to 
receive  from  the  magistrate  of  a  Chinese  city  sev- 
eral hundred  ounces  of  silver  as  indemnity  for  in- 
juries received  by  certain  American  citizens  at  the 
hands  of  a  mob.  A  written  agreement  had  been 
duly  executed  in  which  it  was  specified  that  the 
amount  fixed  upon  should  be  paid  in  treasury 
ounces  of  commercially  pure  bullion.  At  the  time 
set  for  payment,  the  sum  was  brought  carefully 
wrapped  and  scaled  in  parcels,  each  endorsed  as 
containing  fifty  ounces. 

Knowing  that  some  Chinese  officials  were  fond 
of  driving  sharp  bargains,  I  had  provided  myself 
with  weights  known  to  be  accurate,  and  taking  a 
parcel  at  random,  I  opened  and  weighed  it.  It  was 
of  poor  silver — not  more  than  third  grade — and 
weighed  exactly  forty-seven  ounces.  An  examina- 
tion of  a  second  and  a  third  parcel  gave  exactly 
similar  results.  The  entire  amount  was  returned 
to  the  underlings  who  had  brought  it,  to  be  taken 
back  to  their  master,  with  the  message  that,  if 
within  one  hour  he  failed  to  fulfill  his  promise  to 
pay  the  sum  agreed  upon  in  pure  silver  of  treasury 
weight,  our  arrangement  for  the  settlement  of  the 
case  would  be  canceled,  and  his  conduct  reported 
to  his  superiors  at  Peking.  My  message  was 
promptly  delivered,  and  brought  an  immediate  re- 
sponse in  the  shape  of  silver  which,  in  weight  and 
fineness,  more  than  fulfilled  the  terms  of  the  agree- 
ment. 


336  THE  REAL    CHEYAMAN: 

On  the  afternoon  of  the  same  day,  when  I  went 
by  invitation  to  dine  with  this  magistrate,  he  met 
me  at  the  door  with  an  open,  hearty  laugh,  and 
the  remark,  "  I  tried  to  cheat  you  with  poor  silver 
and  light  weiglit  this  morning,  because  I  thought 
that  you,  being  a  foreigner,  would  not  know  the 
difference,  but  I  found  that  you  knew  even  better 
than  I."  Then  he  told  me,  as  a  huge  joke,  that 
he  had  provided  and  weighed  out  the  requisite 
amount  in  each  weight  and  quality  of  silver,  and 
sent  the  low  quality  and  deficient  weight  first, 
hoping  that  the  trick  would  pass  unnoticed,  but 
ready  to  make  his  promise  good  if  it  became  neces- 
sary to  do  so. 

Chinese  cash  are  cast  in  moulds,  and  not  minted. 
Their  use  as  money  dates  back  almost  to  the  be- 
ginning of  time.  The  first  cash  is  recorded  and 
described  as  having  been  made  about  2300  B.C., 
which  would  be  about  the  time  of  the  Flood.  The 
three  specimens  reproduced  in  the  accompanying 
cut  were  current  more  than  two  thousand  years 
ago.  The  largest,  called  a  "  sword  cash"  among 
the  Chinese,  from  its  peculiar  shape,  was  in  use  as 
money  at  the  time  wdien  tlie  Great  Wall  of  China 
was  built,  or  about  221  B.C.  The  circular  specimen 
was  coined  and  used  about  the  time  that  King 
David  reigned  in  Jerusalem.  It  represents  in  gen- 
eral form  and  outline  the  cash  used  at  the  present 
time,  the  only  difference  being  in  the  raised  figures 
or  characters,  which  give  the  name  of  the  emperor 
under  whose  reign  it  was  coined,  and  a  Chinese 
phrase  which  may  be  translated  "  current  coin  of 
the  realm."      The  cultivated   Chinese  are  enthusi- 


Sword  Cash,   B.C.  221. 
Squakk  Cash,  A.D.   i. 
Round  Cash,  B.C.   1085 


CHINESE   EEVAXC/AL    SYSTEAf.  339 

astic  collectors  of  old  coins,  and  genuine  specimens 
command  high  prices.  Pieces  which  date  back 
not  more  than  three  or  four  hundred  years  are  not 
considered  as  antique,  and  will  frequently  be  found 
upon  strings  of  cash  in  current  use.  It  is  no  un- 
common thing  to  find  cash  cast  half  a  century  be- 
fore the  discovery  of  America  stUl  passing  from 
hand  to  hand  in  the  petty  transactions  of  daily 
life. 

The  theoretical  cash  is  a  disk  of  pure  copper, 
about  three  quarters  of  an  inch  in  diameter,  hav- 
ing a  square  hole  in  the  centre  for  convenience  in 
stringing.  It  weighs  fifty-eight  grains  Troy,  and 
is  equivalent  in  value  to  one  thousandth  part  of  a 
standard  ounce  of  refined  silver  bullion.  Mints 
for  casting  cash  are  established  at  Peking  and  in 
each  provincial  capital  under  the  supervision  of 
the  treasury.  Great  care  is  taken  to  prevent  coun- 
terfeiting and  private  minting,  and  the  men  em- 
ployed in  the  works  are  never  allowed  to  leave  the 
premises,  night  or  day,  except  at  rare  intervals 
and  under  special  precautions.  The  chief  security 
against  counterfeiting,  however,  exists  in  the  fact 
that  no  coin  resembling  the  genuine  cash  can  be 
produced  at  less  cost,  and  hence  there  is  little  or 
no  profit  in  any  imitation. 

The  government  of  China  has,  however,  not  been 
wiser  than  its  Western  neighbors  in  attempts,  in 
past  centuries,  to  manipulate  its  currency,  to  give 
fictitious  values  to  its  coins,  and,  in  general,  to 
create  a  valuable  something  out  of  nothing.  Cen- 
turies ago  it  tried  the  "  fiat  money"  scheme,  and 
issued  unlimited  quantities  of  paper  money.     Three 


34^5  THE  REAL    CmA^AMAN: 

hundred  \-ears  before  the  first  bank-note  was  issued 
in  Europe — that  is  to  say,  in  a.d.  1368 — the  people 
of  China  Avere  called  upon  to  use  paper  money- 
made  theoretically  valuable  by  the  will  of  the  em- 
peroi-.  In  an  absolute  autocracy  such  a  scheme 
ought  to  succeed,  if  anywhere  ;  yet  it  went  the  way 
of  all  such  schemes,  and  now  a  solitary  specimen 
of  the  issue  is  to  be  found  in  the  British  Museum, 
having  gained  a  value  through  age  which  it  would 
never  have  obtained  in  any  other  way.  The  nu- 
merous brilliant  discoveries  in  modern  finance, 
which  are  being  exploited  in  so  many  quarters, 
are  veritable  ancient  history  among  the  Chinese. 
Every  one  of  them  has  been  tried,  and  every  one 
has  failed.  And  the  Chinese  Government  has  long 
since  proved  by  repeated  experiment  that,  among 
its  people  at  least,  no  promise  will  pass  current 
without  a  solid  backing  of  fact,  and  that  no  human 
power,  whether  it  be  imperial  or  common,  can 
force  any  article  upon  the  people  at  a  higher  valu- 
ation than  its  current  market  price. 

The  foreign  traveler  or  student  in  China  often 
stumbles  upon  the  relics  of  these  financial  experi- 
ments, sometimes  to  his  amusement,  and  more 
often  to  the  utter  confusion  of  his  cash  account. 
The  experiments  most  in  evidence  at  the  present 
day  have  been  made  with  the  cash.  As  has  been 
stated,  in  theory  each  piece  should  be  equivalent 
in  value  to  one  thousandth  of  an  ounce  of  silver. 
Reduction  in  the  amount  of  copper  contained  in 
each  piece  has  invariably  and  immediately  affected 
their  current  value.  To-day  the  average  value  of 
the  cash  is  eighteen  hundred   pieces  to  an  ounce  of 


CHIME SE  FINANCIAL    SVSTEM.  34! 

silver,  tliough  the  rate  fluctuates  from  day  to  clay, 
and  each  large  city  or  commercial  centre  through- 
out the  empire  has  its  Chamber  of  Commerce  or 
Board  of  Trade,  which  meets  daily  and  determines 
the  exchangeable  value  of  cash  for  silver  for  each 
day's  business. 

One  brilliant  imperial  financier,  by  a  single 
stroke  of  his  vermilion  pencil,  doubled  the  amount 
of  money  current  in  his  empire.  He  decreed  that 
each  piece  of  cash  should  be  counted  as  two.  The 
will  of  the  august  son  of  Heaven  was  obeyed 
throughout  the  greater  portion  of  China,  though 
in  some  sections  the  people  declined  to  be  parties 
to  any  such  nonsense  ;  but  wherever  the  doubling 
process  was  accepted,  it  was  carried  a  point  beyond 
the  anticipations  of  the  imperial  mind.  It  re- 
quired exactly  twice  as  many  nominal  pieces  of 
cash  to  purchase  an  ounce  of  silver  as  before.  In 
traveling  through  the  empire  at  the  present  time, 
one  ignorant  of  this  bit  of  history  may  be  perplexed 
by  finding  that  at  one  village  he  will  be  offered, 
say,  thirty-six  hundred  cash  for  an  ounce  of  silver, 
while  at  the  next,  perhaps  distant  less  than  a  dozen 
miles,  he  will  be  able  to  obtain  only  eighteen  hun- 
dred pieces  for  the  same  amount  of  bullion.  If  he 
sells  in  each  place  and  then  counts  his  cash,  he 
will  find  that  he  received  exactly  the  same  number 
of  actual  pieces  in  each.  In  the  one  village  the 
imperial  process  of  doubling  had  been  accepted, 
but  the  price  of  every  article  of  merchandise  had 
also  been  doubled,  leaving  the  result  of  all  mon- 
etary transactions  absolutely  unchanged.  In  the 
second   village   the   sober  minded,   practical   celes- 


^42  THE   REAL    CHIXAMAX. 

tials  had  quietly  declined   to  lend  their  sanction  to 
an  imperial  absurdity. 

Another  emperor,  in  a  time  of  financial  strin- 
gency, determined  to  coin  cash  of  iron  instead  of 
copper.  These  the  people  unanimously  and  stur- 
dily refused  to  accept  at  any  rate  of  exchange, 
and  the  soldiers  to  whom  they  were  paid  simply 
threw  them  away.  There  are  points  outside  the 
walls  of  Peking  where  a  peck  of  these  souvenirs  of 
imperial  folly  may  easily  be  gathered.  They  lie 
there  in  the  sand,  valueless  even  as  curiosities. 

This  attempt  to  substitute  iron  cash  for  copper 
has  left  a  curious  impression  upon  the  monetary 
SN'stem  of  certain  parts  of  the  empire — an  impres- 
sion which  is  worthy  of  notice,  since  it  illustrates 
the  fact  that  in  China  the  will  of  the  people  is  the 
final  law,  more  commanding  and  decisive  than  the 
dictum  of  any  emperor,  and  the  other  fact  that  the 
Oriental  disposition  is  accommodating  as  well  as 
determined.  In  the  districts  referred  to,  a  variable 
number  of  cash  is  reckoned  as  a  hundred.  In  one 
market  town  I  found  that  seventy-seven  pieces 
were  counted  as  a  hundred  ;  in  another,  eighty-five  ; 
in  a  third,  seventy-two,  and  in  a  fourth,  only  sixty- 
one.  The  explanation  of  this  strange  and  perplex- 
ing medley  was  very  simple.  When  the  iron  cash 
were  issued,  the  people  had  refused  to  accept 
them.  Then  followed  a  discussion  and  an  ultimate 
compromise  between  the  people  and  the  local  au- 
thorities. The  authorities  had  proposed  that  out 
of  every  hundred  pieces,  fifty  of  iron  and  fifty  of 
copper  be  included.  This  had  been  refused.  A 
dicker  had   followed,    with    the    final    result  that, 


CHI?^ESE  fI^!AMClAL    SYSTEM.  343 

while  in  not  a  single  town  were  any  iron  cash 
forced  into  circulation,  the  people  had  consented 
to  count  seventy-seven  pieces  of  copper  cash  as  one 
hundred  in  one  town,  eighty-five  as  one  hundred 
in  another,  and  so  on,  the  compliant  spirit  of  the 
people  being  exactly  measured  by  the  gap  between 
the  nominal  and  actual  hundred  pieces  of  money  ; 
but  here  there  was  absolutely  no  other  result  ef- 
fected than  an  added  perplexit}'  in  keeping  ac- 
counts. If  in  selling  silver  bullion  I  was  forced  to 
receive  only  seventy-seven  cash  for  a  nominal  hun- 
dred, I  received  in  exact  proportion  more  of  those 
nominal  hundreds  for  each  ounce  of  the  precious 
metal.  On  the  other  hand,  in  purchasing  any  arti- 
cle, the  price  was  gauged  to  correspond  to  this  dif- 
ference between  name  and  fact.  The  Chinaman 
who  bought  rice  got  only  seventy-seven  cash  worth 
for  his  nominal  hundred  cash. 

The  most  recent  attempt  to  tamper  with  Chinese 
currency  was  an  order  directing  the  coinage  of  a 
large  piece,  which  should  pass  as  equivalent  to 
twenty  pieces  of  ordinary  size.  It  was  so  stamped. 
The  Chinese  found  it  to  be  equal  to  a  trifle  less 
than  four  of  the  coins  formerly  in  use.  It  has 
never  become  current  anywhere  in  the  empire 
except  at  the  capital,  and  there  it  passes  for  its 
actual,  not  its  stamped  value. 

The  small  value  of  the  cash,  and  the  inconven- 
ience of  making  payments  in  them  or  in  silver, 
have  forced  paper  money  into  use  in  all  Chinese 
cities  and  towns  of  any  considerable  size.  These 
notes  are  issued  by  private  bankers  or  "  cash 
shops,"  as  they  are  called,  have  a  purely  local  cir- 


344  THE   REAL    CHIXAMAN. 

culation,  and  are  neither  guaranteed  nor  recog 
nized  by  the  government.  They  are  redeemable 
on  demand  in  cash  or  bullion  at  the  holder's  option. 
The  authorities  require  security  from  all  persons 
who  propose  to  issue  such  notes,  and  in  case  of 
failure  of  a  local  bank  of  issue,  proceedings  are 
taken  against  the  proprietors  for  debt  exactly  as 
would  be  \\\x\\  any  other  class  of  insolvents.  Fail- 
ures among  these  bankers  are  of  comparatively 
rare  occurrence.  The  necessity  of  these  notes 
may  be  seen  in  the  fact  that  bullion  comes  in 
blocks  weighing  nearly  four  pounds  each,  and 
worth  about  seventy  Mexican  dollars.  Cash  are 
even  more  inconvenient,  since  a  dollar's  worth  of 
Peking  cash  would  comprise  nearly  seven  hundred 
pieces,  each  the  size  of  an  American  lialf  dollar. 

The  illustration  reproduces  two  Peking  bank- 
notes, the  larger  worth  about  two  dollars,  and  the 
sm.aller  about  forty  cents.  They  are  partly  written 
and  partly  printed  from  wooden  blocks  on  thin, 
coarse,  but  strong  paper.  As  a  safeguard  against 
counterfeiting,  each  note  is  laid  upon  the  blank 
page  of  a  book  kept  for  the  purpose,  and  stamps 
and  written  lines  are  placed  at  haphazard  partly 
upon  the  page  and  partly  upon  the  bill.  The  page 
is  then  numbered  and  dated  to  correspond  to  the 
note.  Crude  as  this  method  may  appear,  it  has 
been  found  so  efficient  that  counterfeit  notes  are 
almost  unknown. 

A  curious  vagary  of  Chinese  financiering  made 
its  appearance  in  Peking  in  1883.  A  small  panic 
had  been  caused  by  the  failure  of  two  large  banks. 
One  of  the  results  of  the  general  alarm  was  the  un- 


CIIIXESE   FIXA  .yCVA  I.    S  \  W  TK.^f. 


345 


willingness  of  other  bankers,  whose  standing  was 
above  suspicion,  to  give  as  much  for  an  ounce  of 
silver   in  their  own  notes  as  they  would  in  cash. 


PKKING   BANK-NOTES. 


They  would  pay  as  high  as  fifteen  per  cent  more  in 
mone}^  than  in  their  ]iromises  to  pay — promises 
which  they  miglit  not  be  called  upon  to  redeem  in 


346  THE   REAL    chinaman: 

a  year.  No  plausible  explanation  of  this  peculiar 
state  of  affairs  was  ever  given.  The  Secretary  of 
the  Treasury  confessed  his  inability  to  understand 
it.  It  continued  for  fully  two  years,  and  was  con- 
sidered sufficiently  serious  to  warrant  the  issue  of 
an  order  by  the  authorities  directing  bankers  to 
make  no  discrimination,  in  their  offers  for  silver, 
between  giving  their  notes  or  cash  in  payment. 
This  order,  like  most  others  touching  financial 
questions,  had  no  valuable  effect.  But  it  is  only 
in  China  that  a  man,  in  making  payment  for  an 
article  purchased,  is  willing  to  give  fifteen  per  cent 
more  in  cash  than  in  a  promissory  note. 

Banks  of  exchange  are  common  throughout 
China,  and  remittances  may  be  made  by  them  to 
all  parts  of  the  country. 

Under  the  theory  of  the  imperial  government, 
elsewhere  given,  all  real  and  personal  property 
within  the  limits  of  the  empire  belongs  to  the  Em- 
peror as  the  father  of  his  people,  the  head  of  the 
Chinese  family.  What  he  needs  he  may  take, 
when,  how,  and  of  whom  he  will.  Under  this 
theory  the  government  has,  and  can  contract,  no 
domestic  debt,  since  a  man  cannot  borrow  what  is 
his  own.  In  times  of  special  necessity  special 
levies  of  so-called  voluntary  contributions  are  made, 
and  honorary  titles  and  degrees  are  conferred  upon 
those  loyal  Sons  of  Han  who  contribute  cheerfully 
and  largely  to  the  needs  of  the  throne. . 

The  nominal  rate  of  taxation  upon  any  particular 
object  is  small,  and  not  subject  to  sudden  changes. 
The  land  tax  averages  about  twenty-five  cents  per 
acre,  and  produces  an  annual  revenue  of  more  than 


CIIIXESE    FINAXCIAI.    SYSTEM.  347 

$150,000,000.  This  is  the  largest  amount  received 
from  any  one  source.  Salt  is  a  government  mo- 
nopoly, and  yields  a  large  revenue.  There  is  a 
variety  of  other  forms  of  taxation,  and  without 
going  into  details  it  may  be  said  that  the  imposts 
are  so  arranged  that,  while  under  the  terms  of  the 
law  they  would  bear  heavily  upon  none,  they  reach 
every  person  in  the  empire,  and  compel  each  to 
bear  his  share  in  the  support  of  the  government. 

It  is,  however,  quite  impossible  to  determine 
what  the  total  revenues  may  be.  No  person  either 
within  or  without  the  empire  can  fix  the  sum  with 
even  approximate  accuracy.  That  it  is  large  is 
evident ;  how  large  is  a  cpiestion  that  cannot  be  an- 
swered. The  methods  of  collection,  the  division 
of  receipts  between  the  central  government  and 
local  authorities,  tlie  percentages  legally  or  ille- 
gally retained  by  collectors,  and  a  dozen  other  fac- 
tors of  uncertainty,  vex  the  problem  and  render  it 
impossible  of  solution. 

Certain  of  the  taxes  are  payable  in  kind.  The 
rice-producing  provinces,  for  example,  send  im- 
mense quantities  of  this  grain  each  year  to  Peking, 
where  it  is  stored  in  the  imperial  granaries,  and 
issued  as  a  ration  to  the  Manchu  militiamen  who 
are  quartered  in  and  near  the  capital.  The  Grand 
Canal,  a  national  work,  only  less  noteworthy  and 
of  far  more  practical  value  than  the  famous  Great 
Wall,  Wiis  built  to  furnish  an  inland  waterway  for 
this  rice.  It  was  commenced  in  the  seventh  cen- 
tury and  completed  in  the  fourteenth.  It  extends 
from  Peking  to  Ilang  Chow,  a  distance  of  nearly 
seven  hundred  miles,  though  natural  streams  are 


348  THE   kEAL    CIIIXA.VAX. 

utilized  for  a  part  of  this  distance.  Wliile  it  is  not 
kept  in  proper  repair,  it  is  still  in  use,  and  large 
fleets  of  grain-bearing  junks  traverse  it  each  year. 
It  is  also  used  to  a  very  large  extent  for  local  and 
private  traffic. 

Silk-producing  provinces,  in  like  manner,  pay  a 
portion  of  their  taxes  in  raw  and  manufactured 
silk.  The  tea  districts  pay  in  tea,  and  the  out- 
lying provinces  of  Mongolia  furnish  horses  for  the 
cavalry  and  for  other  lines  of  imperial  service. 

A  large  portion  of  the  revenue  is  remitted  to  the 
capital  by  bills  of  exchange,  but  from  certain  of 
the  provinces  the  bullion  is  brought  in  bulk,  and 
in  a  manner  at  once  primitive  and  peculiar.  Long 
lines  of  open  carts  may  be  seen  coming  into  the 
city  covered  with  the  dust  and  grime  of  travel. 
Each  has  a  small  triangular  flag  of  imperial  yellow 
color  flying  over  it,  and  a  soldier  as  guard.  Each 
cart  afppears  to  be  loaded  with  the  old-fashioned 
wooden  pump  logs,  each  of  which  is  banded  spi- 
rally from  end  to  end  with  iron,  and  covered  with 
many  strips  of  paper  bearing  Chinese  seals  and  en- 
dorsements. Each  log  is  composed  of  two  longi- 
tudinal sections,  and  is  hollow  to  within  a  few 
inches  of  either  end.  This  space  is  snugly  packed 
with  fifty-ounce  blocks  of  silver  bullicm,  which  has 
been  brought  in  this  manner  many  hundreds  of 
miles  to  its  destination  in  the  imperial  treasury. 

The  grave  point  of  weakness  and  danger  in  the 
Chinese  financial  system,  or  lack  of  system,  lies, 
so  far  as  the  government  revenues  are  concerned, 
in  the  free  opportunities  which  are  afforded  for 
extortion,   illegal  exactions  from  the  people,   and 


CHIXESK   FI.YA.VCIAL    SYSTEM,  349 

every  form  of  official  robbery.  It  is  safe  to  say 
that  no  tax  is  collected  and  paid  over  to  the  treas- 
ury in  the  exact  amount  stipulated  by  law.  The 
subject  invariably  pays  more  than  he  ought,  and 
the  Emperor  as  invariably  receives  less  than  his 
due.  And  if  the  exact  total  of  all  sums  collected 
for  public  purposes  from  every  source  in  any  year 
could  be  compared  with  the  corresponding  total 
actually  devoted  to  public  purposes  in  the  same 
period  of  time,  the  enormous  divergence  between 
the  two  sums  would  astonish  tlie  world. 

The  central  government  is  aware,  to  some  extent 
at  least,  of  the  pressing  need  of  a  reform  in  this 
direction,  and  has  often  expressed  a  desire  to 
adopt,  for  example,  some  exact  system  of  coinage 
which  should  protect  both  itself  and  its  subjects 
from  the  abuses  so  safely  perpetrated  at  present. 
The  local  officials  are,  almost  to  a  man,  opposed 
to  a  change  which  would  cut  off  a  large  part  of 
their  revenue  by  rendering  illegal  levies  dangerous, 
if  not  impossible.  In  1877  the  diplomatic  repre- 
sentatives at  Peking  presented  a  joint  memoran- 
dum upon  this  subject  to  the  Chinese  Cabinet. 
The  paper  was  drawn  with  great  care  and  distin- 
guished ability.  The  Cabinet  in  response  frankly 
admitted  the  force  of  the  arguments  employed, 
and  expressed  its  anxiety  to  carry  out  the  reforms 
suggested.  It,  however,  added  that,  in  accordance 
with  the  invariable  rule  of  the  imperial  government 
in  dealing  with  questions  affecting  all  parts  of  the 
nation,  the  document  must  be  referred  to  the  vari- 
ous provincial  authorities  for  consideration  and 
their  report,  which  would  be  communicated  to  the 


35° 


THE   REAL    CHINAMAN". 


several  legations.  In  due  time  these  reports  were 
so  furnished,  and  they  were,  without  exception, 
hostile  to  any  change. 

The  warmest  friends  of  China,  those  who  believe 
with  surest  confidence  in  her  future,  wait  with  anx- 
iety for  a  change  in  these  matters,  realizing,  as 
they  do,  that  such  a  change  is  an  essential  pre- 
liminary to  any  important  development  of  the  na- 
tional life  or  power. 


"  NO   THOROUGHFARE. 


J 


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